4   Sfl3   711 


TEXT-BOOK 

OF 


MEAT  HYGIENE 

with  special  consideration  to  ante-mortem  and 
post-mortem  inspection  of  food- 
producing  animals 


BY 


MEDICAL   COUNSELLOR 
RICHARD  EDELMANN,   Ph.D., 

Royal  State  Veterinarian  of  Saxony,  Professor  at  the 
Royal  Veterinary  High  School  in  Dresden 


WITH   157   ILLUSTRATIONS  AND   8   COLORED    PLATES 


Authorized  Translation,  with  Additions,  by 
JOHN   R.   MOHLER,   A.M.,  V.M.D., 

Chief  Pathological  Division  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry 

and 

ADOLPH  EICHHORN,   D.V.S., 

Assistant  in  Pathology  and  Bacteriology,  Pathological  Division 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 


UNIVERSITY 

'F 


GEO.   E.  HOWARD  PRESS.  WASHINGTON 
1908 


^  „ 


Copyiight  1908,  by 

JOHN  R.  MOHLER,  V.M.D.,  and  ADOLPH  EICHHORN.  D.V.S. 
Pathological  Division,  U.  S.  Bureau  ot  Animal  Industry 


V     OF  THE 

I    UNIVERSITY  ] 

OF 


Translators'  Preface 


The  increasing  interest  manifested  by  the  public  concerning  all  phases 
of  general  hygiene  has  also  extended  to  their  food  supply,  and  especially 
to  meat.  This  is  not  surprising  when  it  is  remembered  that  meat  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  most  important  foods  of  man. 

The  importance  of  controlling  the  sale  of  meat,  the  necessity  for 
which  is  almost  universally  recognized,  demands  -a  force  of  thoroughly 
trained  inspectors  who  are  competent  to  supervise  all  lines  of  work  which 
comprise  the  meat  industry.  For  the  training  of  these  experts,  veterinary 
schools  have  been  obliged  to  afford  satisfactory  opportunities  for  the 
student  to  familiarize  himself  with  this  important  branch  of  sanitary  medi- 
cine, as  it  is  realized  that  a  continually  increasing  percentage  of  their 
graduates  are  being  called  to  responsible  positions  for  the  purpose  of 
guarding  the  public  against  the  dangers  to  which  it  is  constantly  exposed 
from  the  consumption  of  unwholesome  or  diseased  meat. 

The  United  States  Government,  thoroughly  aware  of  the  danger  to 
health  from  consuming  meat  which  is  unfit  for  food,  has  recently  passed 
an  elaborate  and  comprehensive  law  for  controlling  this  danger.  True, 
the  acts  of  Congress  of  1890,  1891,  and  1895  provided  for  the  inspection 
of  meats  entering  interstate  or  export  commerce,  but  the  annual  appro- 
priations had  never  been  sufficient  to  enable  the  Government  to  cover  all 
the  establishments  slaughtering  for  interstate  trade,  although  all  meats 
exported  were  being  inspected  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  foreign  govern- 
ments. While  palpable  defects  in  the  old  law  had  been  repeatedly  called 
to  the  attention  of  Congress  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  it 
remained  for  a  sensational  press  to  so  exaggerate  the  conditions  as  to  call 
immediate  attention  to  the  defective  features.  These  articles  did  not  fail 
to  excite  public  interest,  and  led  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  inaugu- 
rate an  investigation  of  the  conditions  existing  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards 
and  Packing  Houses  at  Chicago,  111.,  by  the  appointment  of  a  Depart- 
mental Committee  which  was  authorized  to  make  a  thorough  and  com- 
plete investigation  regarding  the  meat-inspection  work  conducted  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  The  country  at  this  time  was  being  deluged 
with  sensational  articles  rich  in  fantasy  and  reeking  with  revolting 
stories  calculated  to  convert  the  whole  world  to  vegetarianism.  These 
charges  were  not  only  against  the  packing  houses,  but  to  a  certain  extent 
reflected  upon  the  action  of  the  Government  inspectors.  The  President 

17497?  "' 


iv  Translators'  Preface 

thereupon  decided  it  was  best  to  have  a  report  from  a  committee  not 
interested  in  the  department,  and  forthwith  appointed  a  commission  before 
the  completion  of  the  investigation  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 
The  reports  of  both  these  commissions  were  a  unit  as  to  the  integrity  and 
efficiency  of  the  Federal  meat-inspection  force,  and  agreed  that  there  was 
urgent  need  for  improvement  in  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  packing 
houses,  for  the  enlargement  of  power  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for 
the  inspection  of  meat  for  interstate  and  foreign  commerce,  and  for  the 
correction  of  such  defects  in  the  existing  law  as  would  permit  the  Gov- 
ernment to  inspect  and  supervise  from  the  "hoof  to  the  can"  the  prepara- 
tion of  all  meat-food  products.  Following  the  receipt  of  the  above  reports 
a  special  message  was  sent  to  Congress  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  calling  attention  to  the  need  of  new  and  more  rigid  legis- 
lation, and  on  June  30  1906,  Congress  passed  an  eminently  satisfactory 
act,  which  assures  a  wholesome  and  hygienic  meat  supply  to  the  people, 
for  the  enforcement  of  which  a  permanent  yearly  appropriation  of  three 
millions  of  dollars  is  made,  a  sum  which  will  permit  its  efficient  and  con- 
tinued enforcement. 

The  enforcement  of  this  law  has  created  a  demand  for  a  concise, 
though  comprehensive,  text-book  on  the  subject  of  meat  inspection,  which 
was  sounded  from  numerous  sources,  and  with  the  publication  in  1907  of 
the  second  edition  of  Edelmann's  recognized  work  on  Meat  Hygiene,  we 
determined  to  undertake  the  preparation  of  an  English  edition  of  this 
valuable  text-book.  Inasmuch  as  the  original  work  was  applied  by  the 
author  mainly  to  the  German  conditions  and  the  official  regulations  of  Ger- 
many, we  deemed  it  advisable  to  adapt  the  text-book  to  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  this  country.  Thus  such  additions  and  changes  were  under- 
taken which  were  found  necessary  in  order  that  the  work  might  contain 
all  the  information  which  is  applicable  to  this  country.  Accordingly  the 
regulations  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  were  inserted  and  in  the 
judgment  of  diseased  carcasses  special  references  have  been  made  to  the 
particular  regulations  which  apply  to  the  respective  conditions.  Other 
paragraphs  have  been  included  which  treat  of  conditions  that  have 
attained  prominence  under  the  new  meat-inspection  law.  In  reproducing 
this  work  the  translators  have  endeavored  to  present  the  subject  in  as 
practicable  a  form  as  possible,  and  always  from  the  view  of  the  practical 
inspector  of  meats.  Finally,  we  cannot  refrain  from  expressing  our  sin- 
cere thanks  to  the  eminent  author  of  the  work  who  cheerfully  granted  to 
us  the  privilege  of  preparing  an  English  edition  of  his  valuable  treatise, 
and  we  hope  that  our  endeavors  to  give  the  work  a  satisfactory  interpre- 
tation have  been  successful. 

MOHLER  AND  ElCHHORN. 

Washington,  D.  C. 

June  20,  1908. 


Preface  to  the  Second  Edition 


Following  the  favorable  consideration  which  this  text-book  on  meat 
hygiene  received  from  the  reviewers  and  the  good  results  obtained  from 
its  use  in  teaching  meat  inspection  to  students  of  veterinary  medicine,  as 
well  as  the  assistance  it  afforded  to  inspectors  of  meat  in  the  execution 
of  this  work,  there  seemed  to  be  no  reason  for  undertaking  any  changes 
in  the  outlines  of  the  book  or  in  its  division.  Therefore  this  second  edi- 
tion scarcely  differs  in  its  general  scope  from  the  first. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  the  sections  of  the  book  were  carefully  looked 
over,  and  were  revised  in  accordance  with  the  results  of  investigations  of 
the  last  four  years.  In  various  chapters  it  appeared  necessary  to  revise 
completely  the  material,  especially  regarding  the  method  of  distinguishing 
the  meat  of  the  various  food  animals,  the  apparatuses  for  sterilizing 
conditionally  passed  meats,  the  harmless  disposition  of  condemned  meat, 
and,  furthermore,  the  sections  on  piroplasmosis.  sheep-pox,  braxy,  putre- 
faction of  meat,  and  meat 'poisonings.  Additions  were  made  with  refer- 
ence to  the  authorized  regulations  on  the  transportation  of  live  stock,  speci- 
fications regarding  the  marking  of  live  animals,  tables  concerning  the 
utilization  of  various  meat-food  substances  according  to  Konig,  a  com- 
parison of  the  methods  of  examination  in  the  inspection  of  various  food 
animals,  the  non-contagious  foot-and-mouth  disease,  the  pyobacillosis  of 
young  hogs,  etc.  The  statistical  statements  regarding  the  occurrence  of 
diseases  especially  important  for  the  inspectors  of  meats  were  obtained 
from  the  first  published  Imperial  meat-inspection  statistics  for  the  year 
1904.  It  may  be  mentioned  in  passing  that  the  numerous  changes  and 
supplements  which  the  legislation  on  meat  inspection  experienced  since 
the  publication  of  the  text-book  have  been  carefully  considered  in  the 
second  edition. 

Appreciating  the  importance  of  good  illustrations  for  the  understand- 
ing of  a  text-book,  several  figures  of  the  first  edition  have  been  replaced 
by  better  reproductions,  and  beside  twenty-nine  new  illustrations  were 
inserted.  Of  the  latter  several  were  newly  prepared,  some  were  kindly 
furnished  by  the  interested  industrial  companies,  but  the  majority  were 
borrowed,  with  the  kind  consent  of  the  authors.  Hutyra  and  Marek.  from 
the  "Special  Pathology  and  Therapeutics  of  Domesticated  Animals,'' 
which  also  appeared  as  a  publication  of  Fischer.  It  is  my  pleasant  duty 
to  express  my  thanks  to  all  concerned,  but  especially  to  the  above  men- 


vi  Preface  to  the  Second  Edition 

tioned  authors.  I  also  gladly  express  my  obligations  to  the  publishing 
house,  which  in  a  very  kindly  way  satisfied  all  my  wishes  relative  to  issu- 
ing the  book  in  a  satisfactory  form. 

In  consideration  of  the  numerous  additions  and  improvements  which 
were  undertaken  in  the  new  adaptation  of  the  book,  it  was  impossible  to 
avoid  increasing  the  size  of  the  book  with  53  pages  in  spite  of  endeavoring 
to  be  as  brief  as  possible  and  of  the  extensive  use  of  the  small  type  in  the 
print.  May  the  improved  second  edition  of  the  text-book  on  meat  hygiene, 
receive  the  same  favorable  welcome  as  the  first  edition,  which  was 
dedicated  to  the  privy  medical  counsellor,  Prof.  Dr.  med.  h.  c.  et  phil. 
Ellenberger,  in  Dresden,  and  fulfil  its  purpose  to  the  benefit  of  the  world. 

EDELMANN. 

Dresden,  August,  1907. 


Table  of  Contents 


Page 

Introduction xiii 

Chapter  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

i .     Food  animals 2 

A.  Traffic    in    food    animals 3 

B.  Transportation  of  food  animals 7 

C.  Importation  of  food  animals  from  foreign    countries 10 

D.  Insurance  methods  of  food  animals 12 

E.  Condition  of  obligations    (Guarantee) 15 

F.  Age  of  food  animals 16 

G.  Slaughtering  of  animals 20 

1.  Killing   methods   with   stunning 21         4.   Further  dressing  of  carcasses 26 

2.  Slaughtering   method    without   stun-               5.  Emergency    slaughter 27 

ning 24         6.  Official  regulation  concerning  slaugh- 

3.  Bleeding 25                  ter   29 

H.  Utilization  of  food  animals 30 

1.  Meat    in    a    narrow    sense 30        4.  Viscera   34 

2.  Fat    33         5.  Offal    34 

3.  Blood 34 

Chapter  II,     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  the  Principal  Tissues  and  Organs 

of  Food  Animals 

1.  Meat  proper  and  its  constituents 36 

A.  Muscles 36 

B.  Connective  and  elastic  tissues , 39 

C.  Fat  tissue 39 

D.  Bones   and  bone   marrow 42 

E.  Cartilage .•  •  •  •  42 

*F.  Blood  and  blood  vessels 42 

G.  Lymph  glands  and  lymph  vessels 43 

1.  Visceral    lymph    glands 43         2.   Body    lymph    glands 51 

H.  Comparative  anatomy  of  the  most  important  viscera ,  54 

2.  Peculiarities  of  the  meat  from  various  animals 57 

A.  Beef ' 57 

B.  Veal 58 

C.  Mutton 59 

D.  Goat  meat 59 

E.  Pork _, 59 

F.  Horse  meat 59 

G.  Dog  meat '60 

H.  Rabbit  meat 60 

J.    Poultry  meat 60 

K.  Meat  of  game 60 

L.   Fish  meat 61 

M.  Meat  of  crustaceans  and  mollusks 01 

X.    Meat  of  reptiles  and  amphibians 61 

vii 


viii  Contents 

Page 

3.     Fraudulent  substitutions  of  meat  and  their  recognition 62 

A.  Sheep  and  goat 

B.  Sheep,  goat  and  deer 

C.  Hog  and  dog 64 

D.  Rabbit  and  cat 64 

E.  Hare  and  rabbit 65 

F.  Cattle  and  horses 66 

G.  Cattle  and  deer 7o 

H.  Cattle  and  buffalo 7o 

Chapter  III,     The  Production,  Preparation  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

1 .  Chopped  Meat 7  r 

2.  Sausage 7 l 

A.  Meat  sausages 7- 

B.  Blood  sausages 74 

C.  White  sausages 74 

D.  Jelly   sausages 74 

E.  Sausages  with  larger  quantities  of  vegetable  matter 75 

• 

3.  Culinary  preparation  of  the  meat 75 

A.  Boiling 76 

B.  Steaming 76 

C.  Roasting 76 

D.  Penetration  of  meat  by  high  temperature 77 

E.  Losses  in  meat  in  its  preparation  in  the  kitchen 77 

4.  Conserving  of  the  meat 78 

A.  Physical  conserving  methods 79 

1.  Conserving     by     the     extraction     of              3.  Enclosing  in  air-tight  containers 70 

water   79        4.   Preserving   with   cold 

2.  Conserving  by  closing  out  the  air.  .   79 

B.  Chemical  preserving  methods 87 

1.  Preservation     with     salt 87         4.  Other    chemical    conserving    substan- 

2.  Preservation   with   boracic   acid 89                 ces   90 

3.  Preservation  with  sulphurous  acid..   89        5.   Conservation  by  smoking 90 

5.  Various  food  preparations  derived  from  food  animals 91 

A.  Meat  extract 91 

B.  Peptones 92 

C.<Fat  and  tallow 92 

D.  Caviar  and   smoked  salmon 94 

Chapter  IV.     Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

Regulation    i.  Scope  of  inspection 96 

Regulation    2.  Organization  of  force 96 

Regulation    3.  Interpretation  and  definition  of  words  and  terms 97 

Regulation    4.  Inspection  or  exemption 98 

Regulation    5.  Official    number 99 

Regulation    6.  Assignment   of   inspectors,  etc 99 

Regulation    7.  All    carcasses   and   products  inspected 99 

Regulation    8.  Notice  of  daily  operations,   etc 99 

Regulation    9.  Bribery 100 

Regulation  10.  Sanitation 100 

Regulation  n.  Ante-mortem    examination  and   inspection 102 


Contents  ix 

Page 

Regulation  12.  Post-mortem  inspection  at  time  of  slaughter 103 

Regulation  13.  Disposal  of  diseased   carcasses  and  organs 103 

Regulation  14.  "Retaining"'  rooms 108 

Regulation  15.  ''Condemned"    rooms 108 

Regulation  16.  Tank  rooms,  tanks,  and  tanking 109 

Regulation  17.  Tags,  brands,  stamps no 

Regulation  18.  Trade    labels ^ 112 

Regulation  19.  Reinspection 113 

Regulation  20.  Carcasses    of  animals   not    nspected  ante-mortem 114 

Regulation  21.  Tank  cars 115 

Regulation  22.  Dyes,  chemicals,  and  preservatives. 115 

Regulation  23.  Preparation  of  meat  and  meat-food  products 115 

Regulation  24.  Stamps  for  export  packages 1 16 

Regulation  25.  Transportation 117 

Regulation  26.  Counterfeiting,  etc 126 

Regulation  27.  Reports 126 

Regulation  28. .  Appeals 126 

Regulation  29.  Cooperation  with  municipal  authorities 126 

Law  under  which  the  foregoing  regulations  are  made 127 

Chapter  V,     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure  of  the  Inspection  Force 

1.  Personnel  of  the  inspection  force 131 

2.  The  performance  of  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection ...  133 

A.  Action    in   general 133 

1.  Ante-mortem     inspection     of     food  6.  Bookkeeping     and     certifications    of 

animals    133                    findings    151 

2.  Inspection   of   slaughtered   animals  7.  Statistics  of  ante-uiorteni  and  post- 

(meat   inspection) 134                   mortem  inspection    151 

3".  Inspection  of  imported  meat 145  8.  Dues     for     ante-uiortetn     and     post- 

4.  Inspection    for    trichina 147                    mortem  inspection    152 

5.  Legal    means  of   redress   and  com-  9.  Supervision  of  the  ante-mortem  and 

plaints  in  the  execution  of  meat                           post-mortem  inspection  152 

inspection   150        10.  Freibank    153 

B.  Performance  of  the  ante-mortem  and    post-mortem    inspection    in   the 

stock  yards  and  abattoirs 155 

C.  The  ambulatory  ante-mortem  and  post-mostem  inspection 156 

D.  Extraordinary  meat  inspection 156 

Chapter  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors  and  Disposition  of  the 
Condemned  Meat 

1 .  Ante-mortem  inspection 158 

2.  Inspection  of  slaughtered  animals 158 

A.  Marking  of  meat 159 

B.  Disposition  of  condemned  meat 162 

1.  Meat   passed   with   restrictions 162        3.   Absolutely  condemned  meat 170 

2.  Meat   of   inferior    quality 170 

3.  Inspection  of  meat  imported  from  foreign  countries 180 

Chapter  VII,     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases  of  Food'producing  animals 

i.     Noteworthy  peculiarities  within  physiological  limits 182 

A.  Fetuses  and  dead-born   animals 182 

B.  Immature    animals 182 

C.  Emaciated  animals 183 

D.  Abnormal  odor  and  taste  of  meat 184 

1.  Sexual   peculiarities    184         3.  Absorption  of  odors 18C 

2.  Influences  of   feeding 185 


x  Contents 

Page 

E.  Animals  in  advanced  pregnancy 186 

F.  Abnormal  color  of  the  fat 187 

G.  Incompletely  bled  animals 188 

H.  Exhausted    animals 188 

I.     Dead    animals 189 

2.  General  pathological  changes  as  related  to  meat  inspection 190 

A.  Disturbances  of  the  circulation T9° 

1.  Hyperemia    190        4.  Translations     

2.  Anemia    190        5.  Thrombosis    and    embolism 192 

3.  Hemorrhages   190 

B.  Inflammations < T93 

C.  Retrogressive  nutritive  disturbances  and  infiltration  of  the  tissues 194 

1.  Atrophy     194        6.  Necrosis,    caseation,    gangrene 196 

2.  Cloudy    swelling 194        7.   Suppuration    197 

3.  Fatty  infiltration 195        8.  Calcification    

4.  Fatty  degeneration    195        9.  Pathological   pigment   formation 198 

5.  Various    degenerations 196 

D.  Hypertrophy,  hyperplasia,  metaplasia 200 

E.  Tumors 200 

F.  Malformations 201 

3.  The  principal  affections  of  tissues  and  organs 201 

A.  Skeleton  muscles 201 

B.  Connective   tissue 203 

C.  Fat  tissue 205 

D.  Bone  tissue 205 

E.  Cartilaginous  tissue 206 

F.  The  other  meat  components 206 

G.  Digestive  apparatus 206 

H.  Peritoneum 209 

J.     Genito-urinary  apparatus ' 210 

K.  Udder 213 

L.    Respiratory  apparatus 213 

M.  Pleura 215 

N.    Circulatory  apparatus 215 

O.    Skin 216 

P.    Central  nervous  system 217 

4.  Diseases  of  the  blood  and  constitutional  diseases 217 

A.  Anemia 217 

B.  Hydremia 218 

C.  Leukemia 219 

D.  Rhachitis 220 

E.  Osteomalacia 221 

F.  Sarcomatosis  and  carcinomatosis 221 

G.  Cholemia,   uremia,   and  hemoglobinemia 222 

5.  Diseases  of  invasion 222 

A.  Parasitic  diseases  of  organs 222 

1.  Parasites  of  the  skin 222        3.  Parasites  of  the' digestive  apparatus  227 

2.  Parasites  of  the  respiratory  appa-                4.   Parasites  of  the  pleura  and  peritoneum  232 

ratus    225        5.  Parasites  of  the  brain 233 

B.  Parasitic  general  diseases 234 

1.  Pentastomum    denticulatum 234        4.  Trichinosis    246 

2.  Echinococci    235        5.  General    diseases    produced    by    pro- 

3.  Measles    239                 tozoa   252 


Contents  xi 

Page 

6.  Infectious  diseases 252 

A.  Infectious  diseases  of  food  animals  transmissible  to  man 257 

1.  Tuberculosis     257           8.  Foot  and  mouth  disease 285 

2.  Psuedo-tuberculosis    272          9.  Variola     288 

3.  Actinomycosis    273         10.  Tetanus    290 

4.  Botryomycosis   277         11.  Malignant  edema    291 

5.  Anthrax     277         12.  Septicemia     293 

6.  Rabies    281         1ST.  Pyemia     297 

7.  Glanders    282         14.   Putrid  intoxications 300 

B.  Infectious   diseases   characteristic  of  food  animals  but  not  transmissible 

to  man 301 

1 .  Swine   erysipelas    301           8.   Vesicular  exanthema 315 

2.  Swine    plague 304          0.  Hemorrhagic  septicemia 31C 

3.  Hog  cholera 306         10.  Malignant  catarrhal  fever 317 

4.  Contagious  pleuro-pneumonia 300        11.  Necrotic    stomatitis 318 

5.  Blackleg    311         12.  Diarrhea  of  calves 319 

6.  Bradsot    313         13.  Distemper  and  influenza  of  horses. .  319 

7.  Rinderpest    314 

7.  Intoxications  and  autointoxications  in  slaughtered  animals 320 

A.  Poisoning '. .  320 

B.  Autointoxications 322 

1.  Cholemia     322         3.  Hemoglobinemia    324 

2.  Uremia 323        4.  Parturient    paresis 324 

Chapter  VIII.     Post-mortem  Changes  of  Meat 

1 .  Fermentation  processes   in  meat 327 

2.  Putrefaction  of  meat 328 

3.  Mixed  processes  in  the  decomposition  of  meat 331 

4.  Other  microphytic  changes  jof  meat 331 

A.  Moulds 331 

B.  Phosphorescence 332 

C.  Red  and  blue  colorations  of  meat 332 

D.  Diverse  changes  of  meat 332 

5.  Insect  larvae  on  meat 333 

6.  Other  changes 334 

7.  Souring  and  rancidity  of  fats 335 

Chapter  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  and  Preserved  Meats,  as 
Well  as  Chickens,  Game,  Fish,  Amphibiae  and  Crustaceans 

1 .  Preserved  and  prepared  meat 337 

A.  Ground  meat,  sausages,  and  meats  prepared   by   culinary    methods....  337 

B.  Meat  prepared  by  physical  methods 340 

C.  Meat  prepared  with  chemical  substances 341 

1.   Pickled    meat 341         2.  Smoked    products 343 

D.  Various   conserve   preparations 344 

2.  Examination  and  judging  of  fowls,  game,  fish,  amphibiae,  crusta- 

ceans and  mollusks 347 

A.  Fowl 347 

1.  Age     347        3.  Internal    diseases 349 

2.  External   diseases    34S        4.  Post-mortem  changes  of  fowl  m^at.  .  350 


xii  Contents 

Page 

B.  Game 35* 

1.  Age     351        3.  Diseases     353 

2.  Sex 352        4.   Post-mortem  changes 353 

C.  Fish 353 

D.  Crustaceans,   mollusks   and  amphibians 356 

Chapter  X,     Meat  Poisonings 

1.  Meat  poisoning  as  a  result  of  bacillus  enteritidis 358 

2.  Meat  poisoning  with  bacterium  coli,  etc 362 

3.  Botulismus 364 

Chapter  XI,     History  of  Meat  Hygiene 

In  Europe 308 

In  the  United  States 370 

In  Canada 376 

Chapter  XII,     Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards 

i .     Abattoirs 377 

A.  Location  of  the  abattoir 378 

B.  Entire    establishment 378 

1.  German  arrangement  of  buildings.   379        3.  Combination  system  of  arrangement.  382 

2.  French  arrangement  of  buildings..   381 

C.  Buildings  and  rooms 382 

1.  Killing    houses 382           7.  Boiler    and    engine    houses 385 

2.  Tripe    room 384          8.  Slaughter   houses    for    diseased   anl- 

3 .  Cooling  room 384                    mals    385 

4.  Stables     384          9.  Special   quarters   for  officials 385 

5.  Manure    houses 384         10.  Scale    houses 385 

G.  Tallow  factories  for  rendering  fat                11.  Sewer    connections 385 

and  tallow  obtained  in  abattoir.  384 

D.  Management  of  the  abattoirs 385 

2.     Stock  yards 386 

A.  Location  of  stock  yards 386 

B.  Buildings  and  plants 387 

1.  Special   market   halls 387           7.  Wash  pens  and  vats 388 

2.  Stables    387          S.  Water    supply 388 

3.  Exchange    building 387          9.   Disinfection   of   cars 388 

4.  Office    building 388         10.  Pens    for    stock    held   over . 388 

5.  Railroad   platforms 388        11.  Quarantine   yards 388 

6.  Manure   yard 388        12.   Plague   yards 388 

C.  Management  of  stock  yards 389 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Introduction 


Regulation  of  the  diet  or  hygiene  has  for  its  purpose  the  retaining 
and  strengthening  of  the  health  of  the  human  or  animal  organism,  by 
increasing  its  internal  resistance,  and  by  preventing  any  noxious  effects.  In 
doing  this,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first  place,  to  consider  the  nourishment  of 
the  organism.  Inasmuch  as  meat  constitutes  the  principal  foodstuff  for 
the  human  body,  the  regulation  of  the  diet  of  man  must  also  extend  to 
meat  products.  And  since  recently  there  has  been  considerable  attention 
paid  to  the  latter  from  a  hygienic  standpoint,  justification  is  had  for  the 
use  of  the  words  "meat  hygiene,"  by  which  is  understood  that  part  of 
the  regimen  which  concerns  the  procurance  of  wholesome  meat  foods  for 
man,  their  value  to  public  health  as  well  as  the  dangers  which  threaten 
the  consumers  of  diseased  or  unsound  meats. 

For  the  prevention  of  these  dangers,  there  should  be  in  the  first  place, 
an  expert  supervision  of  the  meat-food  products  of  man.  Everything 
which  constitutes  such  a  supervision  may  be  comprised  in  the  term  of 
meat  inspection  or  meat  examination.  By  this  should  be  understood  the 
examination  of  meat  and  the  products  made  of  the  same,  relative  to  their 
proper  origin  and  desirability  as  food  for  man. 

Inasmuch  as  these  food  substances  are  the  products  of  animals,  the 

examination  can  only  be  complete  if  it  extends  not  alone  to  all  parts  of 

the  slaughtered  animals,  but  also  to  the  food-producing  animals  in  life. 

.  Accordingly  it  is  more  correct  to  speak  of  the  examination  as  an  ante- 

mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection. 

When  in  the  sense  of  this  inspection  the  term  meat  is  mentioned,  it 
should  not  be  exclusively  applied  to  the  striated  muscles  of  the  body,  and 
the  tissues  in  connection  therewith  (fat,  connective  tissue,  nerves,  blood, 
lymph  glands,  bones,  and  cartilages),  but  rather  to  all  parts  of  the  animal 
which  are  suitable  for  human  consumption. 

And  while  the  objects  and  duties  of  meat  inspection  are  in  the  first 
place  the  prevention  of  the  dangers  which  threaten  human  health  from 
noxious  meat  products,  yet  at  the  same  time,  a  well-organized  meat 
inspection  also  undertakes  the  task  of  protecting  the  meat  consumers  in 
an  economic  relation  from  frauds  and  deceptions,  by  subjecting  the  meat 
which  is  not  altogether  unobjectionable  regarding  its  origin  and  consist- 
ence to  be  sold  under  a  compulsory  declaration. 

xiii 


xiv  Introduction 

In  the  execution  of  these  main  objects,  meat  inspection  may  also  ren- 
der important  services  in  veterinary  police  work  by  detecting  animal 
plagues,  and  also  by  extending  a  beneficial  influence  from  a  general 
hygienic  standpoint  to  animal  and  man,  by  the  complete  harmless  disposi- 
tion of  all  products  of  diseases  and  their  specific  causes.  In  relation  to 
the  latter,  meat  inspection  should  not  be  underestimated  in  its  value  and 
importance  to  general  stock  raising.  It  not  only  discloses  to  the  intel- 
ligent owner  of  stock  obscure  diseases,  of  food  animals,  but  shows  to  him 
also,  the  means  and  ways  by  which  such  diseases  may  be  eradicated  and 
prevented. 

As  far  as  the  extension  of  jurisdiction  of  meat  inspection  is  con- 
cerned, it  reaches  all  the  food  animals  which  are  customarily  found  in  the 
respective  countries  (p.  i),  and  which  produce  the  principal  mass  of  meat 
food.  And  while  in  the  question  of  inspection,  only  those  food  animals  are 
concerned,  the  meat  of  which  is  to  be  utilized  commercially,  yet  it  is  of  no 
lesser  importance  to  the  public  interest  that  those  animals  should  be  sub- 
ject to  inspection  which  are  slaughtered  for  private  purposes.  The  rea- 
sons for  this  absolute  generalization  of  meat  inspection  for  all  animals 
coming  for  slaughter,  can  only  be  indicated  at  this  time.  They  lay  above 
all  in  the  importance  of  meat  inspection  in  general  hygiene,  which  cannot 
be  hindered  because  of  private  property. 

Furthermore,  it  is  not  feasible  to  control  the  possibility  that  meat  of 
animals  supposed  to  be  slaughtered  for  private  uses  might  .not  serve  exclu- 
sively for  these  purposes,  but  might  be  brought,  in  spite  of  assurances, 
into  the  public  traffic.  There  also  belongs  to  a  thorough  meat  inspection 
the  control  of  the  meat  products  (prepared  meat),  which  are  prepared 
from  food  animals,  as  well  as  the  inspection  of  all  other  animals  which 
are  marketed  and  served  for  human  food,  such  as  game,  poultry,  fish, 
crustaceans,  mollusks,  reptiles,  and  amphibians. 


L  Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

Man  takes  his  meat-food  diet  from  almost  all  classes  of  animal  life, 
and,  therefore,  the  bromatologic  fauna  extends  from  the  celenterates  to 
the  vertebrates.  In  general,  animals  which  live  on  plant  food  or  on  the 
lower  animals  are  furnishing  the  civilized  nations  with  palatable  meat, 
while  the  meat  of  animals  which  consume  higher  animals  (fish,  amphibia, 
reptiles,  birds),  are  less  adapted  for  human  food.  The  principal  meat 
foods  are  obtained  from  the  class  of  mammals,  and  amongst  this  class 
the  first  place  is  taken  by  herbivorous  and  certain  omnivorous  animals, 
while  those  mammals  which  are  solely  carnivorous  serve  only  rarely  for 
human  food.  Next  to  the  mammals,  birds,  and  then  fish  supply  most  of 
the  meat  for  man.  Other  foods  which  are  derived  from  the  other  classes 
of  animal  life  play  only  the  part  of  delicacies,  or  are  consumed  only 
occasionally. 

1,  Food  Animals 

Although  the  animals  which  are  slaughtered,  and  all  those  which  are 
killed  through  the  abstraction  of  blood  may  be  designated  as  food  ani- 
mals, yet  only  the  slaughterable  domesticated  mammals  are  popularly 
regarded  as  such,  while  domestic  poultry  which  serve  as  human  food  are 
in  general  not  considered  in  the  narrow  sense  under  the  conception  of  food 
animals. 

The  domesticated  mammals  which  are  slaughtered  are  divided  into 
large  stock,  hogs,  and  small  stock,  while  in  Austria  the  latter  two  classes 
are  classified  as  "stock  for  sticking/'  Depending  upon  the  nutritive  con- 
dition they  may  be  distinguished  as  lean  stock  and  fat  stock.  Besides  these 
designations  there  is  also  the  pasture  stock,  which  is  composed  of  lean  as 
well  as  of  fattened  animals. 

To  the  "large  stock''  group  belong  cattle  and  horses,  also  the  ass  and 
mule.  Buffaloes,  which  are  only  occasionally  slaughtered  in  Germany, 
when  shipped  there  from  foreign  countries,  play  a  more  important  part 
as  food  animals  in  southern  and  southeast  Europe,  the  same  as  reindeer 
in  the  northern  countries. 

Cattle  are  slaughtered  as  male  animals  (bulls,  bullocks)  ;  as  castrated 
males  (ox,  steers)  ;  and  as  female  animals  (cows,  heifers). 

The  designation  steer  has  not  the  same  meaning  everywhere.     While  in  some 
places   it  is   understood   that    steers   are   young  male   animals,   in   other  parts   that 
designation  applies  to  castrated,  not  full  grown  male  cattle,  and  in  Saxony  the  word 
2  i 


2  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

steer  represents  only  a  conception  of  the  state  slaughter  tax  applied  to  certain 
animals.  For  this  tax  those  cattle  are  designated  as  steers  which  have  not  yet 
shed  the  outside  middle  and  the  corner  teeth. 

In  the  imperial  regulations  for  the  slaughter  and  meat  inspection  statistics  the 
following  designations  are  made: 

''Steers;"  cattle  of  the  male  sex  which  are  castrated  and  have  reached  two 
years  of  age ; 

"Bulls;"  cattle  of  the  male  sex  which  have  reached  the  age  of  two  years; 

"Cows;"  cattle  of  the  female  sex  which  have  already  calved; 

"Young  stock;"  cattle  after  reaching  the  age  of  three  months  when  they  are: 

(a)  females  and  have  not  yet  calved, 

(b)  males,  or  castrated  males,   which  have  not  yet  exceeded  the   age   of 

two  years. 

"Calves;"  cattle  up  to  the  age  of  three  months,  either  males,  females,  or  cas- 
trated animals. 

In  horses  the  different  sexes  are  known  as  stallions  (male),  mares 
(female),  geldings  (castrated  male  horses)  ;  young  horses  are  called  foals 
or  fillies. 

The  hogs  which  in  Germany  furnish  most  of  the  meat  and  which 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  from  the  standpoint  of  general  mainte- 
nance, are  principally  slaughtered  as  castrated  males  (barrows,  also  stags 
when  they  are  castrated  after  being  used  for  breeding  purposes)  and 
female  animals.  Besides  these,  boars  (wild  boars)  and  cryptorchids,  as 
well  as  sucking  and  breeding  sows,  and  occasionally  very  young  pigs  as 
roasters  and  suckling  pigs  are  also  slaughtered. 

Under  the  term  "small  stock"  come  calves,  sheep  and  goats.  Of  the 
calves  certain  types  are  distinguished  through  their  prominently  marked 
development  of  the  muscles,  especially  on  the  chest  and  legs.  Sheep  and 
goats  when  young  are  called  lambs  or  kids ;  the  male  animals  are  desig- 
nated as  bucks  and  rams ;  when  castrated  they  are  known  as  wethers.  In 
the  language  of  the  butcher,  however,  the  meat  of  all  sheep,  without  con- 
sideration of  the  sex,  is  called  mutton  or  lamb. 

Of  the  other  domesticated  animals  the  following  may  also  be  slaught- 
ered  and  consumed :  In  Germany  dogs  are  principally  slaughtered  in  large 
cities  or  in  localities  densely  populated  with  the  laboring  class,  and  are, 
as  a  rule,  slaughtered  secretly  and  only  for  home  use.  Through  the  gov- 
ernment meat-inspection  laws,  dogs  are  subjected  to  compulsory  inspec- 
tion, and  they  have  been  slaughtered  and  used  for  food  in  noteworthy 
number,  especially  in  Saxony.  Cats  are  also  occasionally  slaughtered  and 
have  been  known  to  be  substituted  for  rabbits. 

Rabbits,  which  are  slaughtered  in  Germany  mostly  for  household  use, 
constitute  in  France  and  England  quite  a  considerable  commercial  prod- 
uct. According  to  Bentel,  the  daily  consumption  of  rabbits  in  Paris 
amounts  to  10,000,  and  in  London  to  75,000.  In  accordance  with  a  publi- 


Traffic  in  Food  Animals  3 

cation  of  Schlieger.  rabbits  to  the  value  of  80  to  90  million  francs  are 
annually  raised  in  France,  and  Paris  alone  annually  consumes  rabbits  valued 
at  5  to  6  million  francs.  In  France,  England,  Belgium,  and  in  some  parts 
of  Holland  rabbits  are  not  a  general  food  of  the  people,  but  rabbit  meat 
may  be  found  daily  on  the  tables  of  the  rich.  According  to  Schlieger 's 
calculation  a  breeding  farm  in  France,  which  produces  600  rabbits 
monthly,  weighing  3  kg.  each,  affords  an  annual  clear  profit  of  $1,250. 

In  relation  to  quick  meat  production  the  rabbit  stands  first  among 
meat-producing  animals.  As  a  female  rabbit  may  be  pregnant  eight  or 
ten  times  annually,  giving  birth  to  a  litter  averaging  six  young,  which 
reach  after  four  months  a  weight  of  2.5  kg.,  such  a  female  may  accord- 
ingly produce  inside  of  a  year  150  kg.  of  meat. 

A,  Traffic  in  Food  Animals 

The  need  of  food  animals  is  preferably  supplied  through  home  stock 
raising,  while  the  importations  from  foreign  countries  (page  10)  is  at 
present  slight,  due  to  the  prohibition  or  considerable  restriction  of  the 
sanitary  police  regulations. 

The  food  animals  which  supply  the  demand  of  the  butchers  in  the 
rural  districts  and  the  small  cities  originate  usually  at  their  home  place 
or  from  the  surrounding  country,  at  least  if  there  should  be  sufficient 
stock-raising  in  the  vicinity  to  satisfy  the  demand.  In  larger  cities  and  in 
purely  industrial  centers  the  demand  of  food  animals  cannot  be  supplied 
from  the  surrounding  country,  and  the  shipping  of  stock  to  these  centers 
from  stock-raising  districts  becomes  a  necessity.  These  shipments  seldom 
occur  directly,  but  as  a  rule  are  made  from  stock-yards,  which  are  the 
collecting  centers  for  the  marketing  of  food  animals  (See  Chap.  XII). 
These  command  at  present  a  conspicuous  importance  in  the  supply  of  large 
cities  and  extensive  territories. 

The  trading  in  food  animals  is  principally  carried  out  from  a  business 
standpoint,  which  even  applies  to  the  constant  small  tradings.  The  buy- 
ing and  selling  of  a  food  animal  is  either  conducted  according  to  live 
weight  or  by  dressed  weight  or  off-hand  (so  much  for  each  animal). 

Each  deal  is  made  through  the  judgment  of  the  quality  of  the  indi- 
vidual food  animal.  For  this  purpose,  besides  the  general  inspection,  the 
buyer  preferably  palpates  or  grasps  certain  parts  of  the  body  which  are 
especially  considered  on  account  of  the  fat  deposits  at  these  points. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  applied  in  cattle  to  the  shoulder,  withers,  outside  surface  of  the 
false  ribs,  hind  bordeY  and  inner  surface  of  the  last  rib,  haunch,  rump,  flank,  base 
of  the  tail,  scrotal  region  in  steers,  and  the  front  of  the  udder  in  cows. 

In  sheep  the  buyer  examines  the  subcutaneous  development  of  fat,  especially  on 
the  back,  the  lumbar  region  and  the  base  of  the  tail ;  he  also  estimates  the  weight 
by  lifting  the  animal  from  the  ground,  and  by  the  age. 


4  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

Calves  are  judged  by  their  general  condition,  age,  development  of  meat  on  the 
back  and  leg,  also  by  lifting  the  animal  off  the  ground. 

In  hogs  the  chest-wall,  the  back,  especially  the  withers,  and  the  abdomen  are 
preferably  examined. 

Besides  the  nutritive  condition,  the  following  examinations  are  gen- 
erally made :  General  conformation  of  the  food  animal,  size,  age,  condi- 
tion of  health,  intestinal  contents,  skin,  hair,  etc.  And  from  all  these 
conditions  the  buyer  forms  a  picture  as  to  the  value  of  the  animal  for 
slaughter,  and  above  all  as  to  its  live  weight.  On  the  correct  estimate  of 
the  latter  in  connection  with  pertinent  judging  of  other  peculiarities  of 
the  animal  depends  entirely  the  principle  of  buying  off-hand  (by  the 
head). 

The  buying  by  live  weight  is  conducted  through  an  estimate  of  the 
value  of  the  animal  by  weight  during  life  and  by  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages which  the  carcass  possesses  for  its  utilization  as  food.  Occa- 
sionally a  discount  is  allowed  in  such  trades  representing  part  of  the 
waste  from  the  intestinal  content.  Most  frequently  is  this  the  case  in  the 
marketing  of  hogs  where  20-22  per  cent,  of  discount  is  sometimes  agreed 
upon.  It  is  only  natural  that  the  price  per  kilo  of  the  live  weight  is 
arranged  accordingly. 

Rieck  established  that  the  losses  in  weight  resulting  from  transportation  of  212 
cattle  from  the  time  they  left  the  place  of  feeding  until  they  reached  the  stock 
yards  amounted  to  7.97-8.95  per  cent,  of  their  live  weight. 

In  buying  by  dressed  weight,  which  is  practically  confined  only  to 
stock-yards,  a  certain  price  is  agreed  upon  at  the  time  of  the  deal  to  be 
paid  in  accordance  with  the  weight  of  the  cooled  dressed  carcass.  By 
dressed  weight  is  generally  understood,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
regional  variations — 

(a)  for  cattle,  the  weight  of  a  bled  and  skinned  carcass  after  removal  of 
the  head  at  the  atlanto-occipital  joint,  feet  at  the  carpus,  the  outside 
and  inside  sexual  organs  and  other  viscera  with  the  exception  of  the 
kidneys;   in  other  words,  the  weight  of  the   four  quarters; 

(b)  for  calves  and  sheep  the  same  conditions  as  for  cattle ; 

(c)  for  hogs   the  weight  of  the  bled  and  eviscerated   carcass.     Only  the 
kidneys  with  the  leaf-lard  remain  in  the  animal.     The  head,  however, 
is  weighed  in  with  the  carcass,  but  the  tongue,  which  remains  on  the 
pluck    (haslets,    consisting    of   the    larynx,    trachea,    heart,    lungs,    and 
liver;,  is  not  included. 

In  all  species  of  animals  there  exists  a  certain  proportion  between 
live  and  dressed  weight,  which  principally  depends  on  the  nutritive  con- 
dition of  the  animals.  Well-fattened  animals  naturally  produce  a  higher 


Traffic  in  Food  Animals  5 

dressed  weight  than  those  which  are  in  poor  condition.  The  proportion  of 
dressed  to  live  weight  is  given  in  the  following  table,  expressed  in 
percentage : 

Dressed  weight  represented  in  percentage  of  live  weight 


Quality 


Steers      Bulls        Cows      Calves      Sheep       Hogs 


Full    flesh     fattened     highest    dressed    value  

58-61 

58-62 

55-60 

62-68 

48-53 

80-85 

Young,  fleshy,  but  not  fattened,  older  cattle  fattened 

53-55 

50-56 

50-54 

58-62 

45-48 

78-82 

48  59 

46  50 

48  59 

50  56 

38  44 

70  78 

49  46 

4°  46 

40  45 

76-80 

In  specially  good  animals  even  a  higher  dressed  weight  can  be  obtained,  as,  for 
instance,  good,  well-developed  young  bulls  may  dress  over  70  per  cent,  and  the 
best  fattened  hogs  may  even  dress  out  90  per  cent,  of  their  live  weight. 

Hengst,  at  the  Leipsic  stock-yards  and  abattoirs,  established  the  average  weights 
in  a  large  number  of  food  animals  as  follows : 


Animal  species 

Live  weight 

Dressed  weight 

Average 
dressed 
weight  in 
5*  of  the 
live 
weight 

No.  of  the 
weighed 
animals 

Average 
weight 
per  head 

Xo.  of  the  j  Average 
weighed   ,    weight 
animals   i  per  head 

Steers                                                                               . 

9,518 

kff. 
695.81 
647.93 
560.01 
468.55 
69.58 
53.58 
107.30 

90,115 
20,559 
62,689 
8,028 
6,653 
25,281 
146,205 

kff. 
374.55 
365.96 
277.79 
253.80 
44.01 
29.11 
89.89 

53.83 
56.48 
49.60 
54.17 
63.25 
54.33 
83.77 

Bulls 

4,119 
5,067 
841 
14,197 
5,471 
6,823 

Cows 

Heifers  

Calves  

Sheep  

Hoes.  .  . 

For  establishing  the  dressed  weight  in  stock-yards  dealers  and  butchers  have,  as 
a  rule,  agreed  upon  certain  principles,  which  are  usually  carried  out  in  slaughter- 
ing the  animals. 

The  amount  of  foodstuffs  in  the  digestive  tract  has  the  most  note- 
worthy effect  on  the  relation  between  the  live  and  dressed  weight  in  the 
food  animals.  This  depends  on  the  kind  of  food,  the  time  of  slaughter, 
and  the  extent  of  driving  or  transportation  to  which  the  animal  has  been 
subjected  after  the  last  feeding.  As  occasionally  this  gives  rise  to  decep- 
tion and  fraudulent  actions  and  causes  differences  between  buyer  and 
seller,  the  knowledge  of  certain  average  figures  of  the  weight  of  the 
gastro-intestinal  canal  and  its  contents  is  of  importance. 

With  reference  to  this  Wolff  makes  the  following  statement:  In  fasting 
animals  the  weight  of  the  gastro-intestinal  canal,  including  its  contents,  amounted 
in  fat  steers  to  16.1  per  cent;  in  medium  fat  steers,  19.5  per  cent;  in  medium  fat- 


Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 


tened  steers,  24.5  per  cent. ;  in  fat  calves,  10.6  per  cent. ;  in  fat  hogs,  7.9  per  cent. ; 
in  medium  fattened  hogs,  12.1  per  cent. 

According  to  Hintzen's  examinations,  the  relative,  weight  of  this  material  aver- 
aged in  fasting  cows  18.2  per  cent.;  in  fasting  calves,  9.2  per  cent.;  in  fasting 
hogs,  7.6  per  cent. 

P.  Falk  ascertained  the  average  weight  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  in  thirty-seven  cattle,  and  found  that  it  represented  16.35  per  cent,  of 
the  live  weight. 

Noack,  in  his  investigation  of  the  indigestions  of  food  animals,  considered  only 
the  weight  of  the  stomachs  and  their  contents,  and  computed  the  results  in  relation 
to  the  dressed  weights. 

The  latter  are  perceptible  from  the  following  comparisons : 


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Its 

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MI 

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la 

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gfi 

oa 

-H 

ol. 

s-s* 

.a 
M 

1 

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2  a  S 

60 

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Species   of   animals 

is 

1 

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1 

Jsl 

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1 

<0J3 
I. 

V 
tfj 

2 

ill 

1 

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£ 

$£ 

V 

"3  £3 

i 

*"d  IT! 

£ 

Q 

«5 

£ 

< 

&*' 

Steers  

10 

300  500 

400 

49-140 

94.5 

21.1 

Cows 

7 

225  375 

300 

45  190 

82  5 

27  5 

Bulls  

17 

250-600 

425 

45-105 

75.0 

17.6 

Total  cattle 

34 

295  600 

412  5 

45-140 

92.5 

22.4 

Calves 

12 

25  5-  55  5 

40.5 

1.5-8.0 

4.75 

11.7 

Sheep 

17 

11  5-  37.0 

24.25 

3.5-9.5 

6.5 

26.8 

Hogs 

15 

57.0-109.0 

83.0 

1.5-7.5 

4.5 

5.  4 

Against  these  figures  Noack  found  the  weight  of  stomachs  from  11  steers  with 
indigestion  between  23  and  42  per  cent,  of  the  dressed  weight. 

With  reference  to  the  absolute  and  relative  weights  of  the  principal  organs  of 
cattle  (heart,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  and  spleen),  calculated  on  the  live  and  dressed 
weights,  see  under  Chap.  II,  I,  H. 

Classification  of  Food  Animals. — In  all  of  the  larger  stock-yards 
the  average  prices  which  prevail  are  officially  published  after  the  close  of 
the  market.  These  prices  generally  refer  to  the  live  and  dressed  weight  of 
the  various  food  animals,  but  at  some  places  only  one  of  the  two  prices  is 
quoted.  The  market  quotations  serve  not  only  as  a  guide  on  the  condition 
of  the  markets,  but  also  afford  a  comparison  of  the  various  markets,  and 
above  all  they  disclose  to  the  stock  raiser,  from  time  to  time,  the  market 
values  of  food  animals. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  most  benefit  from  market  quotations,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  interested  parties  (stock- yard  managers,  stock  dealers, 
butchers,  stock  raisers)  established  the  following  uniform  scheme  for  the 
classification  of  food  animals,  which  forms  at  present  the  basis  of  market 
quotations  at  the  larger  stock  yards : 


Transportation  of  Food  Animals  7 

Steers :  j.  Steers  up  to  6  years  in  full  flesh,  finished  as  regards  to  fatten- 

ing, and  of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

2.  Young  fleshy  steers,  but  not  finished  in  fattening ;  older  fattened 

steers. 

3.  Moderately  nourished  young  steers;  well  nourished  older  steers. 

4.  Poorly  nourished  steers  of  all  ages. 

Bulls :  i.  Bulls  in  full  flesh  of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

2.  Moderately  nourished  younger  bulls. 

3.  Poorly  nourished  bulls. 

Heifers  and          i.  Heifers   in    full  flesh,  finished   in   fattening  and  of  the  highest 
Cows:  slaughter  value. 

2.  Cows  up  to  7  years  in  full  flesh,  finished  as  regards  to  fattening 

and  of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

3.  Older   cows    finished   in    fattening   and   more   poorly   developed 

younger  cows  and  heifers. 

4.  Moderately  nourished  cows  and  heifers. 

5.  Poorly  nourished  cows  and  heifers. 

Calves:  i.  The   finest   fattened   calves    (fattened   on   milk),    and  the   best 

suckling  calves. 

2.  Moderately  fattened  and  good  suckling  calves. 

3.  Poor  suckling  calves. 

4.  Older  poorly  nourished  calves   (feeders). 

Sheep:  i.  Fattened  lambs. 

2.  Young  fattened  wethers. 

3.  Old  fattened  wethers. 

4.  Moderately  nourished  wethers  and  ewes. 

Hogs:  i,  (a)   Hogs  in  full  flesh,  of  fine  breeds,  and  their  crossings  up  to 

i*4  years  old  (weight  220-280  Ibs.)  ;  (b)  fattened  hogs. 

2.  Fleshy  hogs. 

3.  Poorly  developed  hogs. 

4.  Sows  and  boars. 

5.  Foreign  hogs. 

B,     Transportation  of  Food  Animals 

In  the  transportation  of  food  animals  attention  must  be  accorded  the 
animal  on  account  of  the  benefit  it  has  in  the  inspection  of  the  meat,  since 
as  a  result  of  shipment  the  condition  of  the  animals,  as  well  as  the  con- 
sistency of  the  flesh,  may  be  more  or  less  influenced.  The  transportation 
may  take  place  by  driving,  carting,  railroad,  or  by  boat. 

Transportation  by  driving  affects  food  animals  to  a  degree  corre- 
sponding with  their  being  accustomed  to  outdoor  exercise  and  the  tem- 
perature of  the  season.  This  transportation  is  conducted  with  the  least 
effect  on  horses,  sheep,  and  such  cattle  which  were  raised  on  pasture ; 
more  difficulty  is  met  with  stabled  cattle,  calves,  and  hogs.  As  a  rule  the 
driving  of  cattle  is  only  employed  at  the  present  time  for  short  distances, 


8  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

and  for  longer  distances  only  in  such  cases  where  the  cattle  are  well 
accustomed  to  long  drives.  As  the  driving  of  fattened  cattle  affects  them 
unfavorably,  in  accordance  with  the  degree  of  their  fleshiness,  they  are 
driven  only  over  very  short  distances.  The  voice,  sticks,  and  dogs  are 
employed  in  driving  the  animals.  While  dogs  can  be  scarcely  spared  in 
driving  sheep,  they  frequently  cause  considerable  excitement  amongst  the 
animals  of  other  species.  Sometimes  as  a  means  of  compulsion  to 
stubborn  cattle  the  tail  of  the  animal  is  twisted,  which,  however, 
may  degenerate  to  a  cruelty  and  produce  as  a  consequence  ana- 
tomical lesions  in  the  tail  (fractures,  bruises,  etc.). 

To  prevent  cattle  from 
running  away  the  so-called 
"draw-back  or  pulley"  har- 
ness is  frequently  used,  the 
arrangement  of  which  can 
be  seen  in  Fig.  I. 

All    animals    transported 
by  driving  will  get  more  or 
less   excited  and  tire  to   a 
certain  extent.  Should  such 
I  excited    and    tired    animals 

Fig.  i.  Bull  with  casting  apparatus  (after  Dick)  be  immediately  slaughter- 
ed, they  will  bleed  out  in- 
completely in  most  instances,  and  their  meat  will  frequently  be  of  a  lesser 
keeping  quality.  Accordingly,  the  transported  animals,  as  a  rule,  are 
slaughtered  after  they  have  been  allowed  a  period  of  rest,  the  length  of 
which  must  depend  on  the  temperature  of  the  season  and  the  condition  and 
fatigue  of  the  animal  resulting  from  the  transportation.  Some  of  the 
animal  and  meat  inspection  regulations  prescribe  a  certain  number  of 
hours  as  a  resting  period  before  slaughter  of  transported  animals.  Where 
this  is  not  the  case,  the  veterinary  inspector  should,  in  accordance  with 
his  findings  of  the  ante-mortem  inspection,  forbid  the  slaughter  of  the 
animals  until  they  have  regained  their  comfortable  state  and  have  entirely 
recovered  from  the  effects  of  the  transportation. 

In  transporting  by  conveyance  the  vehicles  must  be  suitably  con- 
structed for  the  respective  species  of  animals,  and  must  permit  a  careful 
loading  and  unloading  (Fig.  2).  Fettering  of  the  animals  should  be  car- 
ried out  only  to  the  extent  of  preventing  them  from  jumping  out  of  the 
wagon.  Forcible  and  painful  tying  of  the  legs  of  calves  and  sheep  is  not 
warranted,  especially  with  thin,  cutting  strings,  and  the  frequently  prac- 
ticed crowding  of  animals  into  a  too  limited  space  is  also  to  be  condemned. 
The  more  the  animals  are  fettered,  the  more  they  struggle,  and  for  this 
reason  the  advantages  of  transporting  by  wagon  are  limited.  In  the  sum- 


Transportation  of  Food  Animals  9 

mertime  the  animals  should  be  protected  against  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
hogs  are  advantageously  cooled  by  occasionally  pouring  cold  water  over 
them,  or,  still  better,  by  transporting  them  at  night. 

To-day  transportation  by  rail  plays  the  most  important  part,  and  is 
generally  carried  out  in  accordance  with  appropriate  regulations.  For 
this  method  of  transportation  a  special  kind  of  car  is  employed,  built  espe- 
cially for  the  transportation  of  live-stock.  They  are  of  prescribed  size 
and  are  equipped  with  appropriate  ventilation,  as  well  as  with  contriv- 
ances for  the  feeding  and  watering  of  the  animals. 

A  special  kind  of  stock  car  is  the  so-called  double-deck  car,  or  two- 
story  car,  which  consists  of  two  divisions,  one  above  the  other,  and  is 
used  for  the  shipment  of  sheep  and  hogs.  But  the  common  closed  box 


Fig.  2.     Wagon  for  transporting  cattle   (after  Fuchs) 


cars  are  considered  preferable  by  the  shippers  for  the  transportation  of 
animals  by  rail.  These,  however,  frequently  do  not  answer  the  require- 
ments which  must  be  demanded  from  a  hygienic  and  humanitarian 
standpoint. 

For  the  loading  and  transporting  of  animals  by  rail  the  above-mentioned  regu- 
lations are  in  existence,  which,  however,  require  modifications  and  improvement. 
Cattle,  as  a  rule,  are  placed  crosswise  in  a  fully  loaded  car;  that  is,  perpendicularly 
to  the  long  axis  of  the  car.  According  to  Zschocke,  adult  bulls  and  steers  require 
for  this  purpose  66  cm.  and  cows  57  cm.  of  the  car  length.  For  hogs  an  average 
of  0.40  qm.  of  floor  space  should  be  required,  for  calves  0.31  qm.,  and  for  sheep  0.24 
qm.  per  animal. 

For  the  transportation  of  hogs  and  small  stock  it  is  advisable  to  divide  the  cars 
with  cross  partitions  into  several  compartments,  and  in  mixed  shipments  separate 


I0  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

divisions  for  the  different  species  of  animals  should  be  required.  Only  suckling 
calves  are  allowed  to  be  loaded  together  with  their  mothers. 

The  disadvantages  and  dangers  of  railroad  transportation  of  food  animals 
depend  on  various  conditions.  It  is  greater  for  fat  animals  than  for  lean  ones. 
The  closer  they  are  loaded,  the  warmer  the  temperature,  the  longer  the  transpor- 
tation lasts,  and  the  less  suitably  the  cars  are  arranged,  the  greater  are  the  disad- 
vantages. Hogs  suffer  comparatively  the  most,  and  deaths  from  suffocation  and 
paralysis  of  the  heart  are  not  infrequent.  Cattle  are  oftentimes  greatly  affected  by 
the  frequent  switching  of  the  cars.  They  may  be  thrown  down  and  are  then 
stepped  upon  by  others,  and  may  die  as  a  result  of  the  injuries,  or  even  from 
suffocation. 

A  peculiar  disease  is  sometimes  observed  in  cattle  as  a  result  of  railroad  trans- 
portation, and  is  designated  as  railroad  sickness.  This  affection  manifests  itself  as 
a  severe  nervous  disorder,  which,  in  a  well-developed  state,  does  not  appear  unlike 
parturient  apoplexy.  The  termination  of  the  disease  is  mostly  unfavorable,  which 
makes  early  slaughter  of  the  affected  cattle  advisable. 

The  transportation  of  food  animals  by  boat  comes  principally  into 
consideration  in  importations  from  across  the  sea,  and  for  this  service 
specially  equipped  steamers  are  employed.  The  loading  and  unloading 
of  the  animals  are  accompanied  sometimes  with  considerable  difficulties, 
while  the  transportation  itself,  if  the  weather  is  not  stormy,  is  not  fol- 
lowed by  any  more  marked  disadvantages  than  railroad  transportation. 
In  regard  to  the  sheltering  of  the  animals  on  boats,  everything  said  in 
relation  to  railroad  transportation  may  be  applied  here. 

The  transportation  of  horses  by  boat  is  described  by  Horauf  in  a 
highly  instructive  article  in  the  Berl.  Thierarzt.  Wochensch.,  No.  40,  1906. 

Concerning  the  above-mentioned  period  of  rest  before  slaughter,  this  should 
be  required  for  animals  transported  by  wagon  or  boat,  and  it  should  be  extended 
in  accordance  with  the  condition  of  the  animals.  Generally  the  time  will  be  con- 
siderably shorter  than  in  animals  transported  afoot. 

It  is  readily  understood  that  food  animals  lose  more  or  less  of  their  live  weight 
as  a  result  of  all  kinds  of  transportation.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  establish 
definite  figures  relative  to  that  loss,  on  account  of  the  great  differences  in  feeding 
and  the  conditions  of  transportation. 

[In  the  United  States  the  transportation  of  animals  is  governed  by 
a  decree  (Public  No.  340),  enacted  by  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and 
approved  June  29,  1906.] 

C     Importation  of  Food  Animals  from  Foreign  Countries 

The  importation  of  food  animals  from  foreign  countries  into  the 
territories  of  the  German  Empire  is  regulated  by  decrees  from  the  Impe- 
rial Chancellor  as  well  as  by  the  governments  of  the  allied  states. 

On  account  of  the  changes  in  the  standing  of  contagious  diseases  of 
animals  in  the  states  from  which  importations  are  made,  the  regulations 


Importation  of  Food  Animals  from  Foreign  Countries  1 1 

governing  the  importation  are  changed  from  time  to  time.     At  present 
food  animals  may  be  imported : 

1.  From   Austria-Hungary  cattle   and    sheep   which  comply   with   the    required 
conditions  may  be  imported  to  a  large  number  of  public  abattoirs.     The  cattle  have 
to  be  kept  separated  from  the  domestic  cattle  and  have  to  be  slaughtered  inside  of 
a  certain  time-limit   (4  days).     Besides,  permission  is  granted  to  import  annually 
80,000  hogs  for  immediate  slaughter,  50,000  of  them  to  the  boundary  abattoirs  of 
Bavaria,  namely,  Passau  and  Rossenheim,  and  30,000  to  the  abattoirs  of  Bodenbach 
lying  on  the  boundary  of  Bohemia.     The  meat  of  these  hogs   is   permitted  to  be 
sold  only  at  certain  places.     The  importation  of  cattle  from  Austria-Hungary  was 
fundamentally  regulated  in  the  agreement  on  contagious  diseases  between  the  Ger- 
man  Empire   and   Austria-Hungary  of  January  25,    1905,    which   went   into   effect 
March  i,  1906.     Accordingly,  the  allied  states  have  issued  special  regulations. 

2.  Hogs   from   Russia   may  be   imported   weekly   in   exactly   specified   numbers 
into  certain  abattoirs  at  Benthen,  Kattowitz,  Myslowitz,  Tarnowitz. 

3.  Cattle   from   Denmark  may  be  brought  to   specified   quarantine   stations,   in 
which  they  remain  10  days  for  the  purpose  of  a  tuberculin  test.     After  this  time, 
the  cattle  which  failed  to  react  to  the  tuberculin  test  may  be  shipped  for  immediate 
slaughter   to   the   abattoirs    which    are    open    for     Austro-Hungarian    cattle.     The 
reacted  cattle  cannot  be  utilized  in  Germany,  but  must  be  again  exported. 

The  result  of  the  post-mortem  inspection  of  the  cattle  slaughtered  must  be 
submitted  to  the  quarantine  authorities,  and  those  animals  found  to  be  tubercular 
must  be  particularly  specified.  (Proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  of  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1898,  in  relation  to  the  procedure  of  imported  cattle  by  the  sea  route  from 
Denmark  and  Sweden-Norway.) 

4.  Cattle  from  Switzerland  accompanied  by  health  certificates. 

5.  Exceptionally   cattle,    sheep,   goats,   and    hogs    from   Luxemburg  brought   to 
several  public  abattoirs  of  Alsace-Lorraine   for  immediate  slaughter. 

The  importation  of  prepared  meat  in  accordance  with  the  imperial  meat  inspec- 
tion law  when  there  are  no  restrictions  in  the  meat  inspection  law  and  in  the  laws 
on  infectious  diseases  of  animals,  may  be  permitted  from  any  country.  Regarding 
the  importation  of  fresh  meat,  there  are  no  veterinary  police  prohibitions  against 
the  importation  of  all  sorts  of  fresh  meats  from  Russia,  Roumania,  Servia,  and 
Bulgaria,  also  of  fresh  beef  from  America.  The  importation  of  cattle  from  North 
America  is  prohibited.  Sheep  and  hogs  are  subjected  to  a  quarantine  of  4  weeks. 

[The  importation  of  meat  and  meat  products  into  the  United  States 
is  subject  to  Regulation  32,  Section  n,  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  for 
the  enforcement  of  the  "Food  and  Drug  Act,"  which  is  determined  in  the 
following : 

Regulation  32,     Imported  Food  and  Drug  Products 
(Section  n) 

(a)  Meat  and  meat-food  products  imported  into  the  United  States  shall  be 
accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  official  inspection  of  a  character  to  satisfy  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  that  they  are  not  dangerous  to  health,  and  each  package 
of  such  articles  shall  bear  a  label  which  shall  identify  it  as  covered  by  the  certificate, 
which  certificate  shall  accompany  or  be  attached  to  the  invoice  on  which  entry  is 
made. 


I2  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

(b)  The  certificate  shall  set  forth  the  official  position  of  the  inspector  and  the 
character  of  the  inspection. 

(c)  Meat  and  meat-food  products  as  well  as  all  other  food  and  drug  products 
of  a  kind  forbidden  entry  into  or  forbidden  to  be  sold,  or  restricted  in  sale  in  the 
country  in  which  made  or  from  which  exported,  will  be  refused  admission. 

(d)  Meat    and    meat- food    products    which    have    been    inspected    and    passed 
through    the    customs    may,    if    identity    is    retained,    be    transported   in  interstate 
commerce.] 

D,     Insurance  Methods  of  Food  Animals 

As  the  insurance  of  food  animals  is  of  great  importance  to  the  trade 
in  food  animals,  as  well  as  to  the  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  meat 
inspection,  and  as  the  experts  on  meat  in- 
spection have  frequently  to  cooperate  in 
this  matter,  it  seems  advisable  that  the 
methods  of  insurance  should  be  at  least 
superficially  treated  at  this  time. 

The  insurance  of  food  animals  may  be 
carried  out  in  many  various  forms.  These 
are  distinguished  in  accordance  with  their 
territorial  bounds  as  local,  regional,  pro- 
vincial, and  continental  insurances.  Re- 
garding the  managements,  there  are  private, 


Fig.  3.  Large  benzin  apparatus  for  heating  irons  (Hauptner-Ber.in).  The 
flame  passes  into  a  box  lined  with  fire-clay,  which  accommodates  two  firing  irons; 
they  are  heated  in  a  few  minutes  to  a  red  heat.  Size  of  the  apparatus,  53x22x18011, 
weight,  14.5  kg. 

cooperative,  community,  and  state  insurances.  The  participation  in  the 
insurance  may  be  voluntary  or  compulsory ;  in  the  same  way  it  may  be 
extended  to  all  the  food  animals  or  only  to  a  certain  species  of  them.  The 


Insurance  Methods  of  Food  Animals 


insurance  premium  is,  as  a  rule,  a  certain  sum  decided  upon,  and  is  paid 
for  every  animal  at  the  place  where  the  animals  are  marketed  or  slaught- 
ered ;  and  in  either  instance  it  is  supposed  that  the  animals  are  examined 
by  an  expert  and  found  in  condition  for  the  acceptance  of  insurance.  This 
is  occasionally  manifested  by  a  special  marking  of  the  live  animals,  and 


Figs.  4  and  5.  Anchor  ear 
tags,  according  to  Schumann. 
The  tags,  which  are  also  sup- 
plied in  white  or  colored  tin, 
can  be  easily  marked  or 
numbered  with  a  steel  needle. 
The  tags  are  also  supplied 
with  any  kind  of  marking 
which  may  be  desired. 


Fig.  4 


for  this  purpose  branding  on  the  horns  or  claws  (Fig.  3),  or  the  use  of  ear 
tags,  is  considered  the  most  appropriate  (Fig.  4-7).  Such  marking  may 
also  be  applied  to  small  stock.  For  live  hogs  the  pricking  stamps,  with 
or  without  stains  (Fig.  8),  are  highly  satisfactory,  or  tattooing  pinchers, 
with  which  markings  are  applied  to  the  ears  (Fig.  9). 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  7 

Fig.  6  and  7.  Improved  ear 
tags,  according  to  Hink-Drawert, 
of  the  firm  of  Hauptner-Berlin, 
with  nippers  for  inserting  the 
tags. 


The  insurance  company  pays  indemnity,  as  a  rule,  only  when  the 
entire  carcass,  or  a  large  part  of  it,  is  declared  unsuitable  for  human  food, 
or  is  only  conditionally  passed  by  the  veterinary  inspector.  Then  the 
indemnity  is  paid,  mostly  to  the  full  value  of  the  animal,  which  is  deter- 
mined either  from  the  declared  sales  price,  or  after  slaughter  by  the  estab- 


I4  Chap.  1.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

lishment  of  the  weight  and  the  estimation  of  the  quality  of  the  meat. 
Besides  this  many  insurance  companies  remit  the  expenses  which  result 
from  the  charges  for  slaughter  and  other  fees  in  connection  with  the 
latter.  Other  insurance  companies  allow  only  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
value  of  the  animal  as  indemnity.  Such  insurance  measures  established 
by  the  state  and  supported  by  the  state  treasury,  are  at  the  present  main- 
tained in  the  following  states  : 

1.  In  the  Grandduchy  of  Baden,  the  townships  are  authorized  by  the  law  of 
June  26,  1890,  and  that  of  1901,  to  establish  insurance  for  the  cattle  stock  locally  or 
cooperatively,  which  numbered  at  the  end  of  1899,  185.     In  case  of  death    T70,    and 
in  case  of  emergency  slaughter,  r80  of  the  value  is  allowed. 

2.  In  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  the  law  of  May   12,   1896,   established  a  public 
chamber  of  state  stock  insurance  which  forms  the  central  place  for  the  volunteer 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  9 

Fig.  9.  Tattooing  pincers  with 
two  letters  and  impression,  after 
Hauptner-Berlin. 


Fig.    8.  Pricking    stamp     with     hollow     probe-like 
pins,  according  to  Siedamgrotzky. 


and  township  stock  insurances  which  are  united  into  the  state  union.  The  insur- 
ance indemnifies  for  dead  or  condemned  slaughtered  cattle  at  T7o  to  T80  of  their 
value.  Such  insurance  included  in  the  fall  of  1901  about  1,551  township  insurance 
associations. 

3.  In  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  these  regulations  have  been  somewhat  modified 
by  the  law  of  April  24,  1906,  which  went  into  effect  January  I,  1907.  There  was 
simultaneously  with  the  introduction  of  the  general  animal  and  meat  inspection  law 
of  June  i,  1900,  a  state  food  animal  insurance  established  through  the  law  of  June 
2,  1898,  with  the  provisions  for  execution  of  July  24,  1899.  All  cattle  and  hogs 
over  3  months  of  age  coming  for  slaughter,  which  have  been  a  certain  time  in  the 
territory  of  that  state  are  subject  to  this  state  insurance.  As  indemnity  for  the 
animal  condemned  on  meat  inspection  or  those  passed  conditionally  T80  of  the 
loss  is  allowed,  which  is  obtained  by  deducting  the  actual  value  of  the  slaughtered 
animal  from  the  market  value  of  the  dressed  weight,  and  which  is  officially  estab- 
lished at  regular  intervals  for  the  various  species. 


UNIVERSITY  I 

V  OF  i 

Conditions  of  Obligations  15 

4.  In  the  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen  a  state  food  animal  insur- 
ance was  established  October  I,  1900.     This  applies  to  cattle,  calves,  and  hogs.     The 
unwholesome  meat  and  that  of  inferior  quality  are  paid  for  at  their  full  value. 

5.  In  the  principalities  of  Reuss  a  state  food  animal  insurance  is  maintained, 
based  on  the  laws  of  March  10,  1903,  and  March  12,  1903,  with  regulations  of  May 
15,   1903,  which  went  into  effect  on  July  i,   1903.     All  cattle  and  hogs    (including 
calves),    which    are   slaughtered   in    the   principality,    and    which    are    sold   for   the 
purpose  of  slaughter,  must  be  insured.     The  indemnities  of  the  condemned  animals 
amount  to  the  full  value,  but  no  settlement  is  made  for  losses  less  than  $1.25. 

6.  In  the  Grandduchy  of  Hessen  the  law  of  April  12,  1903,  contemplated  a  state 
food  animal  insurance,  but  lately  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  will  go  into  effect.     The 
insurance  is   compulsory  on    all    cattle    over    three    months    of    age,    which    are 
slaughtered  for  commercial  purposes,  or  if    the    animal    had    to    be    immediately 
slaughtered  on  account  of  some  injury.     The  indemnity  for  carcasses  condemned, 
conditionally  passed,  or  of  inferior  value,  is  established  by  the   full  value  of  the 
carcass  from  wrhich  deductions  are  made  of  the  actual  value  of  the  utilizable  parts. 

It  belongs  to  the  urgent  duties  of  every  veterinarian  connected  with 
meat  inspection  to  familiarize  himself  thoroughly  regarding  the  insurance 
of  food  animals  and  their  regulations  in  the  territory  to  which  his  activity 
extends,  in  order  that  he  may  not  commit  errors,  but  act  as  an  expert 
adviser  to  the  interested  parties. 

[There  is  no  food  animal  insurance  carried  out  at  present  in  the 
United  States,  but  inasmuch  as  such  splendid  results  have  been  obtained 
in  the  different  countries  of  Europe  by  the  above-described  methods  of 
insurance  it  is  quite  probable  that  in  the  course  of  time  an  insurance  will 
be  established  which  will  protect  the  packers  and  shippers  from  the  great 
losses  sustained  from  the  transportation  and  condemnation  of  food- 
producing  animals.] 

E.    Conditions  of  Obligations.     (Guarantee) 

Regarding  the  guarantee  obligations  against  certain  affections  in  pur- 
chased animals,  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  citizens'  law  book,  which 
prescribes  the  obligations  of  the  seller  in  regard  to  some  affections. 
According  to  Sec.  482,  the  seller  is  responsible  only  for  certain  deficiencies 
(principal  deficiencies),  and  only  then  when  they  appear  inside  of  a  cer- 
tain time  (guarantee  limit).  The  principal  defects  and  guarantee  limits 
for  trade  in  food  animals  are  given  below  in  Sec.  2  of  the  imperial  decree, 
March  27,  1899. 

For  the  sale  of  animals  which  are  to  be  slaughtered  and  are  destined  as  food 
for  human  beings  (food  animals),  the  following  principal  defects  are  to  be  con- 
sidered : 

I.  In  horses,   asses,   and  mules:   glanders    (farcy)    with   a  time   guarantee  of 
14  days. 

II.  In  cattle :  tubercular  affections.     In  cases  where  they  are  due  to  the  exten- 
sion of  the  disease,  half  of  the  dressed  weight  is  condemned  or  is  allowed  only 
conditionally  for  human  food  with  a  time  guarantee  of  14  days. 


!6  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

III.  In  sheep;  general  dropsy  with  a  time  guarantee  of  14  days;  under  general 
dropsy  is  to  be  considered  a  dropsical  condition  of  the  meat,  brought  on  by  an 
internal  affection  or  by  insufficient  nutrition. 

IV.  In   hogs : 

1.  Tubercular  affections  as  mentioned  in  No.  II,  with  a  time  guarantee 

of  14  days. 

2.  Trichinosis,  with  a  time  guarantee  of  14  days. 

3.  Measles    (cysticercus  cellulosae),  with  a  time  limit  of   14  days. 

[In  the  purchase  of  live  stock  in  the  United  States,  no  guarantee,  as 
a  rule,  accompanies  the  transaction,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
custom  followed  in  certain  localities  whereby  the  stock  is  bought  subject 
to  post-mortem  inspection.  This  method,  however,  is  generally  applied 
only  to  wagonloads  of  hogs,  and  animals  which  have  been  tuberculin 
tested  and  have  reacted  to  the  test.  Furthermore,  the  animals  which  are 
condemned  or  marked  as  inspected  by  state  inspectors  in  certain  stock 
yards  are  also  sold  subject  to  the  post-mortem  examination  of  the  Fed- 
eral inspector.  The  practice  which  formerly  obtained  with  reference  to 
the  resale  to  other  packers  of  animals  marked  as  suspected  by  a  Fed- 
eral ante-mortem  inspector,  does  not  obtain  under  the  new  law,  as  at 
present  all  ante-mortem  inspections  are  made  by  the  Government  only 
after  the  animals  have  been  sold  to  the  packer  who  wishes  the  carcasses, 
and  such  suspect  animals  are  then  killed  separately  from  the  regular  kill] 

F,    Age  of  Food  Animals 

In  the  inspection  of  animals  and  meats,  strictly  speaking,  only  the 
age  of  calves  plays  an  important  part,  while  the  age  of  other  food  animals 
is  of  minor  value. 

i.  The  age  of  calves  is  of  importance,  since  in  the  largest  part  of 
Germany  it  is  accepted  by  the  public  that  veal  comes  on  the  market  in  a 
certain  state  of  development  when  it  has  attained  the  proper  maturity  for 
slaughter  (See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulat.  13,  Sec.  27).  And  as  in  gen- 
eral this  fitness  for  slaughter  is  only  reached  in  calves  after  a  certain  age, 
it  is  left  for  the  veterinary  inspector  to  decide  the  age  of  calves  in  doubt- 
ful cases.  For  establishing  the  age  in  calves  the  following  should  be 
considered. 

(a)  Calves,  according  to  Pusch,  are  born  with  8  milk  incisors  and 
the  pre-molar  teeth.  Should  the  corner  incisors  at  the  time  of  birth  be 
covered  by  the  mucous  membrane,  so  that  their  presence  can  be  both 
seen  and  felt,  they  will  break  through  in  2-6  days.  While  in  the  begin- 
ning the  highly  reddened  gum  lays  closely  on  the  incisors  and  almost 
covers  them,  after  7-10  days  it  recedes  gradually,  so  that  the  shovel  form 
of  the  incisors  becomes  more  and  more  apparent.  In  this  way,  after  two 
weeks  the  shovel  form  appears  free  in  the  central  and  first  lateral  incisors ; 


Age  of  Food  Animals  17 

soon  this  is  followed  on  the  second  lateral  incisors,  and  finally  after  3-4 
weeks  on  the  corner  teeth.  At  the  age  of  one  month  all  the  crowns  of  the 
incisors  grow  entirely  out  of  the  gum,  which  retains  its  permanent  pale- 
pinkish  red  color,  and  lays  against  the  crowns  of  the  incisors  in  the  form 
of  the  characteristic  pad. 

(b)  The  stump  of  the  navel  cord,  which  remains  on  the  newly  born 
calf,  dries  in  the  first  4-6  days,  and  separates  from  the  abdominal  wall  in 
the  second  week  of  life,  leaving  a  moist,  sensitive  surface,  which  is  soon 
covered  by  a  scab.     In  2-3  weeks  the  cicatrization  of  the  navel  wound 
takes  place,  from  which  the  scab  falls  off  generally  inside  of  the  4th~5th 
week.     Exceptions  to  this  rule  may  occur,  and  are  frequently  caused  by 
inflammatory  suppurative  processes  of  the  navel. 

(c)  During  the  first  week  of  life  the  lumen  of  the  navel  vein  is 
found  to  be  still  w7ide  open  and  filled  with  liquid  blood. 

(d)  The  soft,  arched  pad  on  the  sole  of  the  claws  of  the  newly  born 
calf  becomes  hard  in  the  first  days  after  birth  and  wears  off  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  moving  about  that  is  done  by  the  animal. 

(e)  The  formation  of  the  horns    on    the    frontal    bones    appears, 
according  to  Gerlach,  from  the  third  week  on  in  the  form  of  a  slight 
thickening  of  the  skin  at  the  place  where  the  horns  appear.     By  the  fifth 
week  the  hair  becomes  scanty  at  these  points,  and  at  the  end  of  the  second 
month    the  horn  cap  makes  its  appearance.     After  three  months  a  mov- 
able horn  point  may  be  distinguished,  which  in  heifer  calves  is  2  cm.  long, 
while  in  bull  calves  it  is  3  cm.  long.     The  fixed  condition  of  the  small 
horns  appears  in  bull  calves  after  4  months,  and  in  heifer  calves  after  5-6 
months. 

(f)  The  change  in  the  color  of  the  kidneys,  described  by  Villain 
and  Bascon   for  establishing  the  age  of  calves,  is  not  admissible   inasmuch 
as  it  is  not  typical. 

(g)  Morot  has  also  attempted  to  connect  the  ossification  of  the 
metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  with  the  establishment  of  the  age  in 
calves.     In  calves  up  to  5-6  weeks  of  age  the  longitudinal  halves  of  these 
bones  separate  if  they  are  cut  or  strongly  boiled.     The  surfaces  of  separa- 
tion are  rectilinear,  but   uneven  and  wrinkled.     Each  half  of  the  bone 
shows  its  special  marrow  cavity. 

In  deciding  whether  the  calf  is  old  enough  for  slaughter  the  above- 
mentioned  signs  to  determine  the  ages  of  calves  may  be  supplemented  by 
considering  the  consistency  of  the  meat  and  fat,  which  in  doubtful  cases  is 
the  only  guide  for  the  inspector. 

Regarding  the  peculiarities  of  mature  veal,  see  Chap.  II :  the  signs  of 
immaturity  are  given  in  Chap.  VII.  i. 

Although  the  age  of  the  other  animals,  as  already  mentioned,  is  of 
minor  importance  in  meat  inspection,  the  following  tabulated  exhibit 
3 


18 


Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 


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20  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

should  furnish  some  information  in  regard  to  the  age  of  food  animals 
as  determined  by  the  teeth  (Ellenberger  and  Baum,  Handbuch  der 
Anatomic). 

As  the  appearance  and  change  of  the  teeth  are  influenced  in  our  domesticated 
animals  by  breed,  precocity  and  care,  it  is  evident  that  in  determining  the  age  in 
doubtful  cases  special  works  on  animal  breeding  and  anatomy  should  be  consulted. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  to  all  veterinarians  that  with  the  aid  of  the  rings  on 
the  horns  of  the  cow,  which  develop  from  the  influence  of  pregnancy,  an  inspector 
may  be  able  to  determine  the  age  up  to  a  certain  point.  Two,  added  to  the 
number  of  rings  present  on  horns  of  the  cow,  will  generally  give  her  age.  This 
applies  to  cases  in  which  pregnancy  appeared  regularly.  Irregular  distances 
between  the  rings  are  indications  of  irregular  intervals  between  pregnancies. 

For  determining  the  age  of  slaughtered  cattle,  certain  points  of  ossification,  and 
especially  the  cartilaginous  extensions  of  the  first  4-5  spines  of  the  dorsal  vertebra, 
may  be  advantageously  utilized.  On  the  split  extensions  of  the  vertebral  spines  the 
following  changes  are  manifested  with  the  advancement  of  age : 

1  year,  cartilaginous  extension  entirely  cartilaginous ; 

2  years,  cartilaginous  extension  interwoven  with  small  single  bone  centers; 

3  years,  cartilaginous  extension  diffused  with  bony  islands; 

4  years,  cartilaginous  extension  more  so; 

5  years,  the  bony  structure  exceeds  the  cartilage ; 

6  years,  the  cartilaginous  extension  almost  entirely  ossified;  however,  the  car- 

tilaginous border  can  be  plainly  distinguished  between  the  bony  process  and 
the   cartilaginous  extension; 

7  years,  the  cartilaginous  border  zone  still  plainly  visible ; 

8  years,  the  cartilaginous  border  zone  only  slightly  perceptible; 

9  years,   all  cartilage  disappeared. 

The  ossified  cartilaginous  extension  is,  however,  of  a  lighter  color  and  more 
compact  than  the  bony  substance  of  the  vertebra  proper,  but  sometimes  there  forms 
in  the  bony  substance  of  the  former  cartilaginous  border  a  narrow  red  zone.  If, 
therefore,  the  first  spinal  extensions  in  their  upper  third  are  uniformly  compact, 
the  cow  is  at  least  10  years  old.  If  the  age  exceeds  12  years,  the  spinal  extensions 
gradually  change  into  a  grayish-yellow  compact  bony  substance. 

G,     Slaughtering  of  Animals 

The  commercial  slaughter  of  animals  begins  with  the  killing,  which 
in  Germany  is  generally  carried  out  by  bleeding.  The  latter  must  be  done 
as  thoroughly  as  possible,  since  the  contents  of  the  blood  in  the  meat 
influences  its  keeping  qualities.  The  most  thorough  bleeding  is  accom- 
plished when  the  heart  and  respiratory  functions  remain  in  action  as  long 
as  possible.  As  both  these  functions  depend  principally  on  the  intactriesb 
of  the  medulla  oblongata  with  the  respiratory,  cardiac  and  vaso-motor 
centers,  those  methods  of  killing  will  prove  the  most  satisfactory  in  which 
the  medulla  oblorigata  is  not  injured.  From  a  humanitarian  standpoint 
the  withdrawal  of  blood  should  always  be  preceded  by  stunning  the  ani- 
mals, which,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  carried  out  in  almost  all  cases  with 
the  exception  of  those  slaughtered  in  accordance  with  the  Jewish  rite. 


Slaughtering  of  Animals  21 

As  a  result  of  the  stunning  the  excessive  struggling  of  the  animals  is  pre- 
vented, and  in  consequence  the  dangers  for  the  butchers  from  such  strug- 
gling are  also  averted. 

The  following  killing  methods  are  distinguished  as  a  result  of  the 
different  methods  of  stunning : 

1.     Killing   Methods  with  Stunning 

(a)  The  blow  on  the  head  (forehead  blow)  is  carried  out  with  a 
slaughter  ax,  heavy  wooden  club,  or  hammer.  It  may  be  employed  on  all 
food  animals,  and  causes,  when  proficiently  applied,  an  immediate  insensi- 
bility of  the  animal. 

The  action  of  the  blow  on  the  head  depends  on  the  position  of  the  brain  in  the 
various  animals  and  its  greater  or  lesser  protection  by  the  cranium.  In  the  horse, 
the  conditions  for  stunning  with  the  blow  on  the  head  are  the  most  favorable,  as 
the  brain  is  practically  only  covered  by  the  comparatively  thin  bone  plates  formed 
by  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones.  Therefore,  a  blow  directed  at  this  point  will  act 
directly  on  the  brain.  Similar  conditions  obtain  in  sheep  and  goats;  in  these  ani- 
mals, however,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  strong  roots  of  the  horn  processes 
of  the  temporal  bone  strengthen  considerably  the  cranial  roof,  and  besides  the 
effect  of  the  blow  in  sheep  is  also  diminished  by  the  wooly  covering.  The  brain 
in  these  animals  is  more  easily  reached  from  the  base  of  the  head  than  from  the 
forehead.  In  cattle,  as  it  is  well  known,  the  frontal  bone  also  forms  the  entire  brain 
covering,  which,  on  account  of  the  strong  development  of  the  frontal  sinuses,  is 
divided  into  a  lateral  and  median  lamella.  The  effect  of  the  blow  is  broken  by  the 
frontal  sinuses,  and  the  farther  the  blow  strikes  from  the  middle  point,  the  less 
effective  it  will  prove.  The  proper  point  to  strike  is  located  where  the  diagonals 
from  the  base  of  the  horns  to  the  opposite  orbital  arches  cross. 

These  anatomical  peculiarities  do  not  interfere  in  calves,  as  the  undeveloped 
soft  skull  does  not  resist  the  blow  to  any  marked  degree.  While  the  roof  of  the 
cranium  in  hogs  is  similarly  constructed  to  that  in 
cattle,  due  to  the  prominent  development  of  the 
frontal  sinuses,  yet  these  anatomical  relations  play 
no  special  part,  as  the  majority  of  hogs  are  slaught- 
ered at  a  young  age,  when  the  roof  of  the  cranium 
is  not  very  compact.  Only  in  races  of  hogs  with  a 
strongly  protruding  skull  and  retreating  face  is  the 
bony  development  of  the  skull  very  marked,  and  in 
these  frequently  the  front  part  of  the  head  is  cov- 
ered with  thick,  wooly  hair,  which  considerably 
diminishes  the  effect  of  the  blow. 

Fig.   10.  Head  of  bull  with 
(b)   The  frontal  blow  with  a  slaughter  ax  slaughter   mask   attached. 

or  bolt  hammer  is  executed  by  the  use  of  a 

short  ax,  to  which  is  fastened  a  round,  chisel-shaped  bolt,  and  this  is  driven 
into  the  brain.  The  application  of  this  apparatus,  which  in  general  is  not 
to  be  recommendecl,  requires  skill  in  sure  hitting  and  much  strength. 

(c)  The  frontal  blow  with  the  application  of  the  so-called  slaughter 
mask.  The  construction  of  this  apparatus  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  10,  and  is 
employed  exclusively  on  cattle. 


22 


Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 


The  bolt  is  driven  into  the  brain,  causing  the  animal  to  collapse  immediately. 
Rissling  prefers  a  strong,  hollow  cylinder  to  the  solid  bolt.  Other  slight  changes 
in  the  mask  have  been  undertaken  occasionally.  After  the  removal  of  the  mask,  as 
a  rule  a  small  piece  of  cane  is  introduced  in  the  opening  of  the  cranium  in  order 
to  destroy  further  the  posterior  portion  of  the  brain.  This  is  also  usually  carried  out 
in  the  use  of  the  previously  described  apparatus,  which,  however,  is  absolutely 


Fig.  ii.  Vertical  section 
I  h  r  o  u  g  h  Kleinschnndt's 
spring-bolt  apparatus  :  a,  iron 
covering  ;  b,  bolt  ;  c,  groove; 
d,  spring  ;  e,  head  piece. 


Fig.  12.  Vertical  section  through  a  bolt 
apparatus,  according  to  Kogler  :  a,  bolt, 
b,  groove  ;  c,  screw  for  the  bolt;  d,  iron 
middle  cylinder  ;  e,  eye  for  opening  the 
wooden  handle. 


unnecessary  when  the  bolt  is  driven  at  the  right  place  into  the  brain.  While  the 
convulsive  struggling  which  results  from  the  introduction  of  the  small  piece  of  cane 
into  the  brain  has  a  repulsive  effect,  there  is  total  absence  of  consciousness.  The 
statement  of  Dembo,  in  which  he  expressed  his  doubt  regarding  the  reliability  of 
the  slaughter  mask,  may  be  considered  as  disproved  through  the  statistics  compiled 
by  Siedamgrotzky. 

(d)  The   blow   on  the   forehead   with 
the    spring-bolt    apparatus    designed    by 
Kleinschmidt,  or  with  the  bolt  apparatus 
of  Kogler,  is  used   for  the  stunning  of 
hogs  and  sheep  (Fig.  1 1  and  Fig.  12) . 

(e)  Killing  of  food  animals  with  bul- 
let-shooting apparatus.  The  oldest  instru- 
ment belonging  to  this  class  was  origi- 
nated by  Siegmund.   A  similar  apparatus 
without  the  leather  mask  has  been  placed 
on  the  market  for  several  years  by  va- 
rious firms  according  to  Staehl's  patent 
(Fig.    13).     Lately,   similar  instruments 

have  been  made  for  use  on  hogs  and  small  stock. 

(f)      Shooting  with  the  latest  shooting-bolt  apparatus  designed  by 
Flessa,  Liebe,  Schrader,  and  further  with  Behr's  bolt  pistol,  etc.,  which,  by 


Fig.  13.  Head  of  bull  with 
shooting  apparatus  attached,  ac- 
cording to  'Staehl-Stoff. 


Slaughtering  of  Animals  23 

the  pressure  of  the  gases  from  the  powder  of  an  inflammable  shell,  drives 
a  bolt  into  the  brain  in  a  similar  way  as  the  blow-bolt  apparatus  (Fig.  14). 
Flessa's  bolt-shooting  apparatus  is  very  simple,  inasmuch  as  the  discharge 
occurs  only  on  the  head  of  the  animal  to  be  killed  through  the  ejection  of 


Fig.  14.  Behrs  bolt  pistol  in  section  (Behr's 
Industrial   Company). 


the  bolt  which  extends  for  about  i  cm.,  whereby  the  other  sharpened  end 
of  the  bolt  causes  an  explosion  of  the  strongly  active  copper  cap.  On 
account  of  the  slight  danger  from  the  bolt-shooting  apparatus,  they  should 
be  preferred  to  the  bullet-shooting  apparatuses. 


Fig.  16 

Fig.  15  and  16.  Bolt-shooting  apparatus  by  abattoir  director  Flessa. 
Outside  view  and  longitudinal  section  (Hauptner-Berlin). 

(g)  The  blo\\;  on  the  base  of  the  head  is  carried  out  with  an  ax, 
cleaver,  club,  or  with  the  end  of  a  heavy  hammer.  The  stunning  results 
from  the  contusion  of  the  brain.  This  method  is  the  simplest  for  large- 
horned  or  aged  sheep  and  goats. 


24  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 


2.      Slaughtering  Method  without  Stunning 

(a)  In  pithing,  a  strong  knife  is  stuck  between  the  atlas  and  occipital  bone 
and  the  medulla  oblongata  is  thereby  severed  or  injured.  The  animals  collapse 
immediately.  They  are,  however,  not  stunned  but  only  helpless,  inasmuch  as  con- 
scious movement  is  arrested.  Unconsciousness  only  takes  place  when,  after  subse- 
quent bleeding,  the  resulting  cerebral  anemia  has  reached  a  certain  degree.  The 
bleeding  of  such  "pithed"  animals  is  sometimes  unsatisfactory,  due  to  the  injury 
of  the  vasomotor  centers,  also  of  the  heart  and  respiratory  centers  in  the  medulla 
oblongata.  The  pithing,  therefore,  should  be  discarded  from  a  humanitarian  as 
well  as  from  a  practical  standpoint. 

The  above-mentioned  "blow  on  the  base  of  the  head"  has  the  disadvantages  of 
pithing  only  when  the  blow  has  not  been  sufficiently  strong  to  produce  a  contusion 
of  the  brain. 

(b)  "Schachten"  (from  the  Hebrew  verb  "schachat,"  to  draw;  to 
draw  the  knife  to  and  from),  is  the  oldest  slaughtering  method,  and  is 
applied  by  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans  on  cattle  and  small  stock. 

For  this  purpose  the  animals  are  secured  and  thrown,  and  then  follows  the  cut- 
ting of  the  throat  with  a  very  sharp  knife  with  a  wide  blade.  The  latter  is  per- 
formed by  an  especially  appointed  member  of  that  faith.  Death  of  the  animals 
occurs  through  the  slow  loss  of  blood  from  the  large  vessels  of  the  neck.  The 
throwing  and  securing  of  large  and  strong  cattle  are  frequently  associated  with 
difficulties  and  dangers  for  the  butchers,  and  accompanied  generally  by  considerable 
cruelty  to  the  animal.  Since  the  middle  of  the  last  century  much  argument  has 
been  carried  on  regarding  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  Jewish  method 
of  slaughter  from  a  humanitarian,  physiological,  and  hygienic  standpoint,  and  also 
as  to  its  authority  from  a  religious  consideration,  which  will  not  be  further  dis- 
cussed here.  It  should  only  be  mentioned  that  shectering,  without  previously  stun- 
ning the  animal,  was  prohibited  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  in  Switzerland,  a 
regulation  which,  from  the  humanitarian  standpoint,  should  receive  the  fullest 
approval.  Further  information*  may  be  obtained  from  the  extensive  works  and 
publications  on  this  subject. 

For  diminishing  the  cruelty  in  throwing  animals,  various  apparatuses  have 
been  constructed,  which,  however,  are  only  slightly  improving  the  repulsiveness  of 
the  Jewish  method.  The  same  can  be  said  in  relation  to  the  equipment  now  in  use 
for  the  stretching  of  the  neck  and  head  before  shectering  by  the  so-called  head- 
holder. 

It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  experiments  have  been  made  to  kill  animals 
with  electricity.  (Bockelmann.) 

To  improve  on  the  securing  of  hogs  for  stunning  Renger  constructed  a  slaught- 
ering machine,  which  can  be  utilized  to  only  a  very  limited  extent. 

For  acquiring  steadiness  in  taking  aim  on  the  part  of  the  butcher  apprentices, 
various  apparatuses  have  been  constructed.  They  are  even  supplied  with  an  indi- 
cator registering  the  force  of  the  blow,  and  are  maintained  by  the  butchers'  asso- 
ciations of  larger  cities.  On  these  machines  the  apprentices  receive  their  instruction 
and  practice  in  striking. 


Slaughtering  of  Animals 


3,     Bleeding 

Extraction  of  the  blood  is  accomplished  in  large  stock  and  hogs  by 
cutting  the  blood  vessels  at  the  entrance  of  the  thoracic  cavity;  in  small 
stock  by  sticking  in  the  neck  or  cutting  the  throat.  The  latter  is  also  some- 
times employed  in  cattle,  especially  when  slaughtering  them  in  accordance 
with  the  Jewish  rite  (Schachten).  As  the  preserving  qualities  of  meat 
depend  considerably  on  thorough  bleeding  this  should  be  as  complete  as 
possible.  It  depends  on  the  following  conditions : 

(a)  The  health  of  the  animal  considerably  influences  thorough  bleeding  as  all 
severe  affections  weaken  the  vitality,  which  involves  the  action  of  the  heart,  respira- 
tion, and  muscles,  thus  influencing  the  driving  out  of  the  blood.    Especially  is  bleed- 
ing retarded  in  febrile  conditions  of  food  animals,  also  in  cases  of  severe  indiges- 
tion, acute  disturbances  of  the  portal  circulation,  and  severe  lung  and  heart  affec- 
tions.    As  a  rule  animals  so  affected  bleed  out  very  poorly. 

(b)  Sufficient  rest  of  the  animals  before  slaughter  is  also  essential  to  assure 
a  thorough  bleeding.     Animals  that  are  excited  or  are  thoroughly  tired  out  usually 
bleed  out  insufficiently. 

(c)  Strong  and  long  continued  respiratory  and  heart  action,  as  well  as  ener- 
getic  convulsions  of  the  body  muscles   favor   thorough   bleeding   for   reasons  that 
must  appear  self-explanatory.     As  these  functions  are  regulated  by  the  central  ner- 
vous system  and  especially  by  the  medulla  oblongata  the  thorough  bleeding  depends 
to  no  small  degree  upon  the — 

(d)  Slaughtering  and   stunning  method,   which   favorably  influences  bleeding 
when  the  medulla  oblongata  remains  intact. 

(e)  The  performance  of  sticking  or  cutting  considerably  promotes  or  retards 
the  bleeding.     When  thoracic  bleeding  is  performed  the  heart  must  not  be  injured, 
and  also  bleeding  into  the  thoracic  cavity  must  be  prevented    (over-sticking),   as 
compression  of  the  heart  and  lungs  takes  place  through  the  quick  accumulation  of 
blood  in  the  chest  cavity. 

The  anemic  state  of  the  arteries  and  large  and  medium  vein  trunks  is 
not  the  only  indication  of  thorough  bleeding,  but  what  may  be  considered 
as  more  important  is  a  certain  dryness  of  the  parenchymatous  organs  and 
especially  of  the  muscles.  Only  a  few  drops  of  blood  can  be  obtained  on 
pressure  of  the  cut  surfaces  and  only  in  the  smallest  veins  can  there  be 
found  traces  of  blood. 

The  quantity  of  blood,  which  averages  iV  of  the  body  weight, 
naturally  cannot  be  totally  abstracted;  however,  the  larger  portion  of  it 
may  be  withdrawn.  The  quantity  of  the  blood  depends  on  the  sex,  size, 
and  nutritive  state,  and  on  the  above-mentioned  conditions,  which  may 
influence  the  bleeding  of  the  slaughtered  animals.  The  quantity  of  the 
withdrawn  blood  amounts  in  cattle  to  15-25  liters;  in  horses,  20-30;  in 
hogs,  2-3;  in  small  stock,  il/2  liters.  In  hogs  the  quantity  of  blood  is 
considerablv  diminished  with  the  increase  of  fat  on  the  animal. 


26  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

Various  experiments  have  been  made  regarding  the  quantity  of  blood  drawn 
from  slaughtered  animals.  Heissler  found  the  quantity  of  blood  from  horses  to  be 
3.93-9  per  cent,  of  their  body  weights ;  in  cows,  4.02-5.75  per  cent. ;  in  calves, 
4.40-6.65  per  cent.;  in  sheep,  4-37-7-56  per  cent.;  in  hogs,  1.45-5.74  per  cent 
According  to  Goltz  the  quantity  of  blood  amounted  in  cattle  to  3.1-3.3  per  cent,  of 
the  body  weight;  in  calves,  4.9-5  per  cent;  in  sheep,  4-1-4-3  P61"  cent.  At  the  same 
time  Goltz  established  that  the  method  of  killing — whether  the  animal  was  slaught- 
ered in  accordance  with  the  Jewish  rite  or  whether  the  withdrawal  of  blood  is  pre- 
ceded by  stunning — has  no  influence  on  the  quantity  of  blood  flowing  from  the 
animal.  The  same  results  were  obtained  by  Falk,  who  also  believes  that  cows  pos- 
sess a  larger  quantity  of  blood  than  heifers,  or  even  bulls  and  steers.  Fjelstrup 
letermined  the  quantity  of  blood  by  washing  out  the  blood  vessels  with  salt  water 
infusions,  according  to  a  special  formula. 

The  blood  from  animals  slaughtered  by  cutting  the  throat  is  as  a  rule  polluted 
with  the  vomited  contents  of  the  stomach,  and  therefore  cannot  be  utilized  for 
human  food.  (B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regul.  13,  Sec.  I.) 

4,     Further  Dressing  of  Carcasses 

Regarding  the  further  course  of  commercial  slaughter  the  following 
brief  notations  may  contain  some  information.  [The  extent  of  the  dress- 
ing and  cutting  with  consideration  for  the  intended  post-mortem  inspec- 
tion is  established  by  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  12,  Sec.  1-3.] 

Cattle  and  horses  are  partly  skinned  while  on  the  floor.  This  is  then  followed 
by  the  removal  of  the  feet  in  the  carpal  and  tarsal  joints,  and  of  the  head.  (At 
this  time  the  horns  of  cattle  are  chopped  off  in  order  to  remain  on  the  skin).  The 
abdomen  is  cut  for  a  short  distance  along  the  median  line  for  the  removal  of  the 
connected  masses  of  fat  of  the  mesentery.  After  the  penis,  scrotum,  or  udder  is 
cut  off,  the  breastbone  and  the  pelvis  sawed,  the  latter  in  the  symphysis,  the  ani- 
mal is  hoisted  with  the  aid  of  a  beam  which  is  inserted  through  an  opening  made 
between  the  tendo-Achilles  and  the  metatarsus  bone,  or  by  hooks  which  are  inserted 
into  the  same  openings.  The  carcass  is  then  further  skinned  and  finally  eviscerated, 
leaving  only  the  kidneys.  In  the  process  of  evisceration  (gutting)  the  uterus  and 
bladder  are  first  removed,  followed  by  the  intestines  and  mesentery;  then  the  stom- 
ach (or  stomachsi),  with  the  adherent  spleen,  then  the  liver  and  finally  the  heart, 
lungs,  and  trachea.  In  some  places  the  liver  and  parts  of  the  diaphragm  are 
removed  together  with  the  thoracic  viscera  (in  U.  S.).  From  the  head  the  brain 
is  removed  and  the  tongue  is  separated  from  the  connection  with  the  lower  jaw,  in 
such  a  way  that  the  buccal  and  laryngeal  cavities  become  entirely  exposed.  With 
hogs,  which  are  subjected  to  so-called  scalding  in  water  at  6o°-7o°  C.,  the  hair  and 
epidermis  are  loosened,  which  may  then  be  removed  by  scraping.  After  washing 
and  hanging  by  the  flexor  pedis  tendons  of  the  hind  legs,  the  evisceration  takes 
place.  Only  the  kidneys  are  left  in  place,  provided  they  do  not  come  out  with  the 
removal  of  the  retroperitoneal  layer  of  fat  (leaf  lard).  Stomach  and  intestines 
remain  in  their  natural  connection;  also  the  liver,  with  the  thoracic  viscera 
together  with  the  trachea,  esophagus,  and  tongue.  In  France  the  bristles  of  the  hog 
are  removed  by  singeing.  [Singeing  is  followed  in  U.  S.  for  certain  export  hogs]. 
At  present  this  custom  appears  to  be  declining,  and  is  gradually  being  replaced  by 
scalding.  As  singeing  makes  the  examination  of  the  skin  difficult,  it  should  be  con- 
sidered in  Germany  in  accordance  with  the  meat  inspection .  regulation  as  a  pro- 
cedure to  which  the  hogs  should  not  be  subjected  without  further  consideration. 


Slaughtering  of  Animals  27 

Small  stock  are  skinned  after  the  removal  of  the  feet,  partly  while  lying  on  a 
rack  and  partly  when  hung  up.  They  are  then  eviscerated  in  the  same  manner  as 
hogs ;  the  kidneys,  sometimes  the  liver  and  spleen,  as  well  as  the  thoracic  viscera 
being  left  in  place.  The  inflation  of  carcasses  of  calves  and  sheep  by  blowing  air 
into  the  subcutis  with  the  mouth,  bellows,  or  air-pump,  is  not  so  frequently  carried 
out  at  present  as  formerly,  and  this  also  can  be  said  regarding  the  inflation  of  the 
lungs  with  air.  Meat,  which  shows  changes  through  the  blowing,  must  be  declared 
as  unfit  for  human  consumption.  Frequently  calves  are  left  with  their  hides  on  for 
reasons  of  cleanliness  in  transportation.  As  a  rule,  cattle  and  hogs  are  split  into 
halves  through  their  vertebral  columns  immediately  after  slaughter,  while  smail 
stock  are  left  intact  for  the  time  being.  Until  the  carcasses  are  cooled  no  further 
cutting  takes  place.  At  this  time  each  side  of  beef  is  transversely  cut  and  divided 
into  a  fore  and  hind  quarter,  by  which  procedure  the  last  3  or  4  ribs  are,  as  a  rule, 
cut  off  with  the  hind  quarter.  The  further  cutting  of  the  dressed  meat  depends 
on  the  commercial  customs,  which  vary  not  only  in  accordance  with  the  various 
species  of  animals,  but  also  with  different  countries  and  localities.  For  further  par- 
ticulars on  this  subject,  as  well  as  the  commercial  designation  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  dressed  carcass,  see  page  31. 

In  relation  to  the  further  manipulations  in  the  slaughter  of  animals  for  Jews 
it  should  be  briefly  mentioned  that  a  certain  examination  of  food  animals  is  made 
as  to  their  health.  In  cattle  the  "Schachter,"  after  the  abdomen  has  been  opened, 
and  before  the  breastbone  has  been  divided,  places  his  arms  into  the  thoracic  cavity 
through  an  opening  in  the  diaphragm  and  explores  the  pleura  for  adhesions,  etc. 
After  the  removal  of  the  internal  organs  from  the  body  their  further  examination  is 
made  principally  with  the  eye,  but  whether  the  carcass  should  be  considered  as  pure 
and  proper  food  for  Israelites  (kosher),  depends  especially  upon  the  palpation  of 
the  lungs  for  abnormalities.  Besides  there  are  also  certain  lesions  of  the  other  vis- 
cera considered.  In  case  the  slaughtered  animal  cannot  be  passed  for  food  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ritual  requirements,  it  is  declared  as  unclean  (trepha).  The  Kosher 
meat  is  marked  for  the  benefit  of  the  consumers  with  the  Hebrew  lettering  *^*^ 
and  frequently  also  it  is  sealed  or  stamped  with  the  date  of  the  slaughter.  As  certain 
large  blood  vessels,  certain  strips  of  fat,  tendonous  parts,  etc.,  should  not  be  con- 
sumed, these  parts  are  removed  by  the  "Schachter,"  which  are  designated  as  "Trie- 
benr"  and  "Porschen"  of  the  meat.  As  this  would  result  in  considerable  cutting 
if  applied  to  the  hind  quarters,  and  consequently  would  diminish  the  value  of  the 
meat,  they  are  not  "porsched,"  and  are,  therefore,  not  eaten  by  religious  Jews. 
Further  particulars  of  the  Jewish  ritual  slaughter  can  be  found  in  Goltz's  History 
of  Meat  Food. 

5.     Emergency  Slaughter 

The  form  of  slaughtering  which  is  everywhere  designated  as  emer- 
gency slaughter  deserves  special  mention,  and,  furthermore,  requires  par- 
ticular attention  from  the  standpoint  of  sanitary  police. 

The  emergency  slaughter  involves  those  cases  of  injured  and  sick  ani- 
mals where  the  life  appears  to  be  more  or  less  threatened,  and  in  order  to 
endeavor  to  save  4:he  meat  for  human  food  they  are  hastily  slaughtered. 
\Yhile  there  are  various  diseases  which  occasion  an  emergency  slaughter, 
yet  they  may  not  affect  the  meat  so  as  to  render  it  unwholesome.  Others 
again  are  of  a  doubtful  character  and  have  endangered  the  life  and  health 


28  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

of  numerous  people.  This  was  proven  in  a  long  series  of  epidemics 
which  resulted  from  meat  poisoning,  and  Bollinger  rightly  claims  that  at 
least  I  of  these  outbreaks  were  in  connection  with  emergency  slaughter. 

The  principal  causes  for  emergency  slaughter  in  cattle,  as  shown  by 
experience  and  also  by  the  tabulated  statistics  of  A.  Maier,  are  affections 
of  the  digestive  and  sexual  organs,  and  the  infectious  diseases.  In  small 
stock  and  hogs  the  latter  diseases  play  the  most  important  part,  while  in 
hogs,  swine  erysipelas  is  frequently  the  cause  for  emergency  slaughter. 

According  to  Lydtin's  statistics  meat  produced  by  emergency 
slaughter  involves  a  danger  which,  when  compared  with  the  meat  obtained 
by  commercial  killing,  is  80  times  greater  in  cattle,  12  times  in  calves,  100 
times  in  sheep,  90  times  in  goats,  211  times  in  hogs,  and  3  times  in  horses. 

Although  such  statistics  sufficiently  indicate  the  sanitary  importance 
of  emergency  slaughter  in  general,  this  is  further  increased  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  emergency  killings,  as  Ostertag  rightly  remarks,  "include 
not  always  the  typical  affection's,  but  in  many  instances  diseases  of 
unknown  origin  (cryptogenetic  sepsis)."  For  these  reasons  the  judging 
of  animals  slaughtered  in  emergency  is  in  many  cases  connected  with 
difficulties,  even  for  the  scientifically  trained  veterinary  inspector,  which 
frequently  proves  a  hard  test  of  his  knowledge  and  conscientiousness. 
Owing  to  the  dangers  of  emergency  slaughter  from  a  sanitary  standpoint, 
all  efforts  for  years  were  directed  toward  the  subjection  of  these  animals 
under  all  conditions  to  a  veterinary  inspection.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  shows  a  flaw  on  this  important  point, 
which  could  easily  prove  serious.  In  accordance  with  this  law  the  inspec- 
tion may  be  omitted  if  the  animals  are  slaughtered  for  home  consumption, 
and  it  frequently  happens  that  many  instances  of  emergency  slaughter  are 
carried  out  on  just  such  occasions.  In  the  above-mentioned  law,  the  limita- 
tion is  made  that  inspection  may  be  omitted  only  in  those  animals  which 
before  or  after  slaughter  show  no  signs  of  disease  that  would  render  the 
meat  unwholesome.  This  regulation  has,  however,  only  a  limited  value, 
as  in  some  cases  an  important  disease  might  not  show  striking  appear- 
ances in  the  eyes  of  a  layman ;  then  again  unconscientious  stock  owners 
may  either  disrespect  the  requirements  of  the  law  altogether,  or  in  case 
they  should  be  caught  they  could  assert  that  the  symptoms  of  disease 
manifested  by  the  animals  were  not  such  as  to  warrant  the  opinion  that  the 
meat  in  consequence  was  unfit  for  consumption.  And  while  the  animals 
slaughtered  for  home  consumption,  and  therefore  uninspected,  cannot  be 
commercially  utilized,  yet  the  probable  affections  should  be  considered 
which  might  result  from  partaking  of  infected  meat  by  the  family  and 
servants.  Besides  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  frequently  the  meat  of 
home-slaughtered  animals  is  openly  or  indirectly  brought  to  market,  or  is 
worked  up  for  this  purpose. 


Slaughtering  of  Animals  29 

For  these  reasons  it  would  be  very  desirable  if  the  governments  of  the 
allied  states  should  avail  themselves  of  the  authority  offered  them  by  the 
law.  and  should  provide  compulsory  inspections  even  for  home  slaughter- 
ing, as  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  other  states. 

By  cold  slaughtering  is  understood  in  butchers'  circles  those  fraudulent  manipu- 
lations, which  aim  to  utilize  carcasses  of  dead  unslaughtered  animals,  as  if  they  had 
been  slaughtered,  by  performing  the  sticking  or  cutting  on  post-mortem.  The  absence 
of  bloody  infiltration  of  the  edges  of  the  wound  and  other  manifestations  make  the 
detection  easy  for  the  expert. 

6.     Official  Regulations  Concerning  Slaughter 

For  manifold  reasons  it  would  be  desirable  to  have  the  appendix  of  the  imperial 
meat-inspection  law  contain  uniform  regulations  for  the  slaughter  of  animals.  At 
present  the  following  decrees  are  in  effect: 

In  Prussia  the  ministerial  decrees  of  December  16,  1889.  and  March  25,  1900, 
contain  detailed  specifications  regarding  the  procedure  in  the  slaughter  of  animals. 
They  -also  contain  the  corresponding  police  regulations  which  exist  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  country.  In  the  Government  District  Koblentz  pithing  is  prohibited  by 
the  police  regulations  of  September  23,  1891. 

In  Bavaria  the  procedure  of  the  slaughtering  of  food  animals  was  regulated  by 
the  order  of  the  State  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  February  19,  1890. 

In  Saxony  the  decree  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  of  March  21,  1892,  rela- 
tive to  the  stunning  of  food  animals  prescribes  that  in  the  slaughter  of  all  animals 
with  the  exception  of  fowls,  stunning  must  precede  bleeding. 

By  the  order  of  May  23,  1891,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony-Meiningen  only  the 
"Schachten"  is  exempted  from  the  decree  which  prescribes  that  stunning  must  pre- 
cede bleeding. 

The  following  regulations  affect  the  "Schachten,"  in  accordance  with  the  Jew- 
ish rite: 

In  Prussia  an  order  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  Religion  and  Education,  of 
January  14,  1889,  forbids  all  unnecessary  cruelty  to  animals,  and  prescribes  special 
regulations  for  a  careful  throwing  of  the  animals  and  safe  securing  of  the  head,  etc. 

In  Bavaria  a  similar  decree  on  this  subject  was  issued  by  the  State  Ministry  of 
the  Interior,  July  12,  1889. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  the  Schachten  is  prohibited  in  accordance  with  the 
above  decree  for  that  state,  if  it  is  not  preceded  by  stunning. 

In  Baden  the  regulations  regarding  the  Jewish  method  of  slaughter  are  con- 
tained in  the  Ministerial  decree  of  March  29,  1888. 

In  Meiningen  a  proclamation  of  May  29,  1891,  prescribes  the  avoidance  of 
unnecessary  cruelties  to  animals  in  shectering,  based  upon  the  above-mentioned 
decree  of  Prussia. 

In  Switzerland  the  prohibition  of  Schachten  was  accepted  by  the  state  constitu- 
tion after  submitting  the  question  to  general  vote,  which  resulted  187,000  against 
and  112.000  for  the  Schachten,  and  iiV2  against  and  iol/2  for  in  the  votes  by  cantons. 

[The  slaughtering  methods  employed  for  cattle  in  the  United  States 
are  preceded,  with  the  exception  of  those  selected  for  Hebrew  consump- 
tion, by  stunning  which  is  carried  out  with  a  long-handled  hammer.  While 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  stunning  of  the  animals  with  the  various  above- 


3o  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

described  apparatuses  has  some  advantages,  yet  such  methods  could  not 
be  satisfactorily  carried  out  in  the  large  slaughtering  centers  of  this 
country,  as  a  large  percentage  of  the  food  animals  are  range  cattle  which 
have  never  been  accustomed  to  being  handled,  and  therefore  the  attach- 
ment of  an  apparatus  to  them  or  even  approaching  them  for  that  purpose 
would  be  not  only  impracticable,  but  an  impossibility  in  most  cases. 
Besides  the  construction  of  the  killing  pens  and  the  skill  of  the  men 
employed  for  this  particular  work  of  "knocking,"  render  this  method  per- 
fectly satisfactory  and  without  any  unnecessary  cruelty  as  it  occurs  only 
exceptionally  that  the  animal  is  not  completely  stunned  with  a  single,  well- 
directed  blow.] 

H,    Utilization  of  Food  Animals 

As  the  utilization  of  all  parts  of  a  slaughtered  animal  which  serves  as 
human  food  is  of  the  best  advantage,  it  is,  therefore,  aimed  to  effect  this 
utilization  to  the  greatest  extent  possible.  All  other  parts  which  are  not 
suitable  for  food  are  designated  as  offal.  While  in  ordinary  usage  most 
of  the  edible  parts  of  food  animals  are  erroneously  included  in  the  word 
meat,  yet  in  commerce  and  trade  the  term  meat,  in  a  narrow  sense,  includes 
only  the  skeletal  muscles  with  all  of  the  organically  connected  parts 
(bones,  fat,  tendons,  blood  vessels,  nerves,  lymph  glands,  etc.),  while  the 
fat,  the  blood,  and  all  viscera  utilizable  for  human  food  are  not  consid- 
ered. All  these  portions  which  partly  are  marketed  in  their  fresh  state, 
partly  again  worked  up,  naturally  possess  great  extremes  of  value. 

1.     Meat  in  a  Narrow  Sense 

The  principal  value  of  food  animals  lies  in  the  meat  proper,*  namely 
in  the  striated  or  skeletal  muscles,  which,  in  accordance  with  their  loca- 
tion and  their  coarse  anatomical  structure,  possess  different  values  as 
human  food.  In  this  valuation  the  actual  nutritive  worth  of  the  meat  is 
generally  not  considered  (Chap.  II),  but  more  depends  on  its  usefulness 
and  flavor.  The  latter  is  principally  based  upon  the  firmness  and  tender 
character  of  the  muscle  fibers,  the  arrangement  and  contents  of  the  con- 
nective tissue,  the  deficiency  or  richness  of  fat,  and  the  amount  of  the 
extractive  matter  on  which  depends  the  taste  of  the  meat.  As  these  rela- 
tions vary  considerably  in  the  different  regions  of  the  animal  body,  the 
sale  value  of  the  meat  of  certain  parts  varies  likewise.  This  is  also  influ- 
enced, however,  by  fondness  for  certain  cuts  in  different  parts  of  the 
country.  Corresponding  with  these  conditions  various  meat  qualities  are 


*Regarding  the  morphology  and  chemistry  of  meat,  also  the  peculiarities  of  the 
meat  of  various  food  animals,  see  Chap.  II. 


Utilization  of  Food  Animals 


distinguished  in  all  animals,  and  the  regional  limits,  valuations,  and  desig- 
nations differ  considerably  in  the  various  countries  and  territories. 

The  following  attempted  division  of  the  quality  limitation  of  meat  of  food  ani- 
mals is  only  considered  for  the  principal  portions,  as  they  are  distinguished  by  the 
trade  all  over  Germany,  and  as  they  are  comprehended  regarding  their  valuations. 

[Meat  Cuts  in  United  States. — In  the 
United  States  the  different  meat  cuts 
from  the  various  food  animals  are  sold 
in  accordance  with  a  certain  classifica- 
tion, and  a  considerable  variation  exists 
in  the  market  value  of  the  meat  from  the 
different  parts  of  the  animal.  But  inas- 
much as  there  is  no  distinct  ratio  as  to 
the  market  value  of  these  various  meat 
cuts,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  name 
them,  indicating  also  their  location  on 
the  carcass  in  the  accompanying  illus- 
trations :] 

(a)  Beef  (Fig.  17) 

First  Quality :  Tenderloin 
(muse,  iliopsoas,  invisible  on  the 
cut),  sirloin  (English  roast), 
rump. 

Second  Quality :  Double  round 
(the  median  part  of  the  round  is 
not  visible  on  the  cut),  thick 
flank,  best  ribs,  chuck  (only  part 
of  the  same). 

Third  Quality :  Shoul- 
der, brisket  (partly  cov- 
ered by  the  shoulder), 
chuck,  plate,  neck. 

Fourth  Quality :  Short 
ribs,  flank,  shank,  shin, 
head,  and  tail. 

[In  the  United  States 
the  usual  beef  cuts  are : 
a  Shank,  b  round,  c 
rump,  d  sirloin,  ^e  por- 
terhouse, /  rib,  o  flank, 
m  plate,  h  chuck,  /  bris- 
ket, g  shoulder,  i  neck, 
k  shank.]  pjg  ^  g^e  Of  beef  showing  the  commercial  cuts 


Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 


(b)    Veal  (Fig.  18) 

First  Quality:   Leg  (cutlet),  loin  roast,  chops. 

Second   Quality:    Shoulder,   chuck,   breast    (partly   covered   by   the 
shoulder). 

Third  Quality :  Neck,  flank,  shank,  shin. 
Fourth  Quality :   Head  and  feet. 

Fig.  18 

Fig   20 

Fig   19 


Fig.  18.  Side  of  veal  showing  the  commer- 
cial cuts. 

Fig.  19.  Side  of  mutton  showing  the  com- 
mercial cuts. 

Fig.  20.  Side  of  hog  showing  the  commer- 
cial cuts. 


[In  the    United    States    the    veal    cuts    are:  b  Leg,  d  loin,  c  flank. 
e  breast,  g  shoulder,  i  neck.] 

(c)   Mutton  (Fig.  19) 

First  Quality :   Leg,  loin. 

Second  Quality :    Shoulder. 

Third  Quality :   Ribs,  partly  covered  by  shoulder ;  breast,  flank,  neck. 

Fourth  Quality :    Head. 


Utilization  of  Food  Animals  33 

[In  the  United  States  the  cuts  are:  a  Leg,  b  loin,  c  back  and  rib, 
d  breast,  f  shoulder,  h  neck.] 

(d)   Pork  (Fig.  20) 

First  Quality:   Leg  (ham),  loin  (chops,  cutlet,  roast). 

Second  Quality:   Neck-piece,  shoulder  (shoulder  ham). 

Third  Quality :   Short  ribs,  belly,  shanks. 

Fourth  Quality:   Head  with  jowl  (cheek),  snout,  feet. 

[In  the  United  States  the  cuts  are :  c  Ham  d  loin,  e  belly,  g  shoulder, 
i  head.] 

In  the  horse  and  dog  there  are,  as  a  rule,  no  special  classes  of  meat 
distinguished;  nevertheless,  in  horses  certain  parts  (tenderloin  and 
tongue)  command  a  higher  price  than  others. 

The  tongue  of  all  animals  and  the  udder  of  cattle  are  sold  as  meat. 
When  meat  is  not  sold  in  a  raw  or  pickled  state,  with  or  without  the 
bones,  etc.,  it  is  worked  up  for  the  various  meat  products.  (See  Chap.  III.) 

2.    Fat 

The  fat  which  is  obtained  from  food  animals  in  coherent  masses  is 
utilized  for  food  purposes  either  in  a  raw  or  rendered  state.  The  term 
bacon  is  applied  to  the  deposition  of  fat  in  hogs  with  or  without  the  skin, 
which  lies  between  the  skin  and  the  muscular  meat,  especially  on  the  back 
and  on  the  side  of  the  body ;-  it  may  also  be  intermixed  with  thin  muscular 
layers.  In  commerce,  especially  in  North  America,  the  following  variet- 
ies of  bacon  are  distinguished,  which,  however,  in  accordance  with  the 
specific  definition  above,  should  not  be  considered  from  the  meat  inspec- 
tion standpoint,  with  the  exception  of  fatbacks,  as  bacon,  but  they  are  to 
be  treated  in  accordance  with  the  disposition  of  pork  meat  (See  Chaps.  IV 
and  V). 

1.  Short-clear,  a  side  of  the  hog  between  the  hind  shank  and  the 
anterior  half  of  the  shoulder,  from  which  the  bones  have  been  removed. 

2.  Long-clear,  that  boneless  half  of  a  hog  which  lies  between  the 
hind  shank  and  the  head,  from  which  the  lean  portion  of  the  loin  has 
been  cut  out. 

3.  Rib  belly,  the  side  of  a  hog  consisting  of    the    hind    and    lower 
ribs,  which  generally  are  not  removed,  and  of  the  corresponding  lower 
portion  of  the  belly. 

4.  Short  fat-backs,  as  the  fat  which  lies  on  the  back  and  side  of  the 
body  over  the  larger  muscles  and  over  the  ribs ;  they  are  generally  cut 
into  elongated  quadrangular  pieces  and  are  very  frequently  intermixed 
with  the  muscular  layers. 

5.  Long  fat-backs  are  short  fat-backs,  to  which  the  fat  lying  on  the 
side  of  the  neck  is  added. 

4 


34  Chap.  I.     Origin  and  Source  of  Meat  Food 

Those  pieces  of  fat  and  trimmings  which  are  not  suitable  for  sale  in 
the  shop  are  melted  for  lard,  or  are  conveyed  to  soap,  grease,  and  other 
factories,  where  they  find  various  technical  utilization. 

Chapter  III  contains  further  information  on  this  subject. 

3,    Blood 

It  is  principally  the  blood  of  hogs  that  is  worked  up  for  sausage, 
while  the  blood  from  other  animals  is  used  for  this  purpose  only  in  rare 
cases. 

Albumen  was  formerly  made  from  blood  offal,  but  its  production  is  now  dimin- 
ishing. Recently  efforts  have  been  directed  toward  utilizing  the  dried  and  ground 
blood  for  fertilizing  and  cattle  food  purposes,  since  the  high  nitrogenous  contents  of 
the  pulverized  blood,  12-18  per  cent,  makes  it  very  adaptable.  Small  concerns  usually 
dispose  of  the  unused  blood  with  the  manure  and  other  offal. 

4,     Viscera 

The  heart,  liver,  lungs,  kidneys,  spleen,  brain,  and  thymus  gland  of 
calves  (sweetbread)  are  sold  in  their  fresh  state  or  they  are  worked  up  for 
sausage  or  other  meat  products. 

The  stomach  of  hogs  is  used  for  sausage  coverings,  the  stomachs  of 
cattle  are  sold  after  scalding  and  removal  of  the  epithelium,  as  the 
so-called  tripe,  or  are  utilized  to  a  limited  extent  in  ordinary  kinds  of 
sausage.  Stomach  and  intestinal  canal  of  calves  are  consumed  as  "calf- 
ruffle."  The  stomachs  of  sheep  are  used  either  for  manufacturing 
sausage  or  for  food  purposes.  From  the  stomach  of  calves  is  also 
obtained  the  rennet  ferment  (for  manufacturing  cheese).  The  intestinal 
canals  of  cattle  and  hogs  serve  as  sausage  coverings  after  they  have  been 
scraped  and  thoroughly  cleaned.  In  a  similar  way,  but  to  a  limited 
extent,  the  small  intestines  of  sheep  are  employed;  otherwise  they  are 
utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  violin  strings.  The  serous  membrane  of 
the  caecum  of  cattle  is  used  as  the  so-called  "goldbeater  skins."  The 
bladders  of  cattle  and  hogs  are  utilized  for  sausage  coverings 

It  should  be  remarked  in  passing  that  recently  from  certain  organs, 
especially  the  thyroids,  ovaries,  as  well  as  testicles,  bone-marrow  and 
adrenal  capsules,  therapeutic  remedies  are  prepared,  which  are  quite 
extensively  employed  in  human  medicine. 

5,    Offal 

The  most  important  constituent  of  food  animals  belonging  in  this 
class  is  the  skin,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  hog  skin,  is  worked  up 
into  leather. 

The  latter  serves  only  for  this  purpose  in  exceptional  cases  (boar, 
old  hogs),  as  it  is  otherwise  sold  with  the  meat,  or  remains  on  the  bacon, 
or  is  mixed  in  the  filling  of  various  kinds  of  sausage.  The  same  is  done 


Utilization  of  Food  Animals  35 

with  the  skin  of  the  heads  of  calves,  and  exceptionally  with  the  skin  of 
the  heads  of  young  cattle.  Besides,  the  skin  of  the  head  of  cattle,  espe- 
cially the  lips  and  the  muzzle,  as  well  as  the  ears,  is  worked  up  for  food. 
The  utilization  of  cattle  and  calf  skin  for  sausage,  with  the  exception  of 
the  parts  above  mentioned,  is  only  permitted  under  declaration.  From 
the  bones,  which  are  not  sold  with  the  meat,  and  which,  in  well- 
fattened  cattle  amount  to  15.1  to  15.4  per  cent,  of  the  dressed  weight  the 
marrow  is  extracted  for  various  purposes,  but  that  from  the  lower  bones 
of  the  legs  is  especially  worked  up  for  Neat's  foot  oil.  Otherwise  the 
offal  bones  are  converted  into  glue  and  bone  meal  in  factories,  while  the 
long  bones  are  also  used  for  industrial  purposes  (turnings  or  coverings). 
The  same  applies  to  the  horns  of  cattle.  Tendonous  and  cartilaginous 
tissues  are  utilized  in  glue  factories. 

Brushes  are  made  from  the  better  hog  bristles,  while  the  poorer 
qualities  are  used  for  minor  purposes.  Hoofs  and  claws,  as  well  as 
inferior  horns,  are  worked  into  fertilizer. 

The  genital  organs  serve  as  dog  food,  and  other  appropriate  offal  is 
also  beneficially  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  occasionally  observed  abusive  utilization  of  the  sexual  organs, 
especially  the  testicle  and  uterus  for  food  purposes,  could  be  remedied 
by  the  simplest  form  of  condemning  these  parts  during  meat  inspection. 
However,  the  present  meat-inspection  regulations  give  no  authority  for 
such  action. 

The  bile,  which  is  collected  at  some  places,  is  used  in  the  cleaning 
of  clothes,  and  also  for  the  manufacture  of  soap 

The  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  ruminants  and  hogs  are  also  used 
mixed  with  blood  or  molasses,  for  the  preparation  of  animal  food. 


II,  Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  the 

Principal  Tissues  and  Organs 

of  Food  Animals 

The  morphology  and  chemical  properties  of  meat  and  its  constituents 
should  be  mentioned  here  only  to  the  extent  that  it  is  of  importance  in  the 
examination  of  meat  and  in  determining  its  significance  as  human  food. 

1,     Meat  Proper  and  Its  Constituents 

A-     Muscles 

Of  the  three  kinds  of  muscles — the  striated,  non-striated,  and  heart 
muscle — only  the  first,  which  is  bought  and  consumed  as  meat  proper  or 
muscle  meat,  comes  under  consideration  here.  There  is  also  included 
the  tissues  which  are  in  natural  connection  with  the  muscle  proper  (fat, 
connective,  elastic,  nerve,  bone  tissues),  and  organs  (blood  and  lymph 
vessels,  lymph  glands,  etc.).  According  to  Friedel  the  "meat"  purchased 
at  the  butcher  shop  contains  an  average  of  83  per  cent,  meat,  8.4  per  cent. 
bone,  8.6  per  cent.  fat.  The  quantitative  proportion  between  the  striated 
muscle  and  the  other  constituents  of  the  body  varies  between  30  and  50 
per  cent,  of  the  live  weight,  and  in  medium  fat  animals,  this  is  higher 
than  in  lean  or  very  fat  ones. 

The  structure  of  the  muscle  consists  of  fibrous  tissue,  which  pos- 
sesses a  peculiar  luster  and  a  semi-solid  consistence.  The  firmness  of 
the  fiber  is  different  in  the  various  animals,  and  has  an  influence  on  the 
tastefulness  of  the  meat.  The  tenderness  or  toughness,  however,  does 
not  entirely  depend  on  this,  but  is  more  intimately  connected  with  the 
race,  age,  nutritive  condition  of  the  animal,  and  the  amount  of  con- 
nective tissue  present.  Relative  to  the  latter,  the  experiments  of  K.  B. 
Lehmann,  show  that  the  cutaneous  muscles  are  2.5  times  tougher  than 
the  tenderloin,  the  consistency  of  which  is  hardly  influenced  by  cooking, 
but  cooking  considerably  diminishes  the  toughness  of  the  cutaneous  mus- 
cles (almost  to  the  consistency  of  the  tenderloin).  The  toughness  of  the 
meat  is  diminished  at  least  25  per  cent,  in  a  few  days  through  the  ripening 
process,  which  is  due  to  the  formation  of  acid  in  the  muscles. 

The  experiments  performed  by  Isaak  regarding  the  toughness  of 
meat  are  not  sufficiently  extensive  to  draw  positive  conclusions  from  them. 
36 


Muscles  37 

The  color  of  the  muscles  varies  between  a  pale  red,  gray  red,  and 
dark  red.  Pale  muscles  occur  in  vertebrates,  birds,  and  certain  fish; 
Almost  all  the  food  animals  show  pale  meat  in  certain  ages  of  life 
(calves,  young  pigs),  while  in  rabbits  the  meat  remains  pale  all  through 
life.  Pale  meat  may  also  appear  in  some  animals  in  certain  groups  of 
muscles  alongside  of  dark-red  muscles  (hogs,  birds).  While  the  color 
of  the  muscles  is  somewhat  influenced  by  the  blood  contents,  yet  it  is  not 
produced  by  the  blood.  The  muscular  coloring  matter,  which  is  identical 
with  the  hemoglobin,  is  rather  bound  to  the  myosin  and  develops  in  it. 
Further,  the  color  of  the  meat  is  influenced  by  age,  sex,  race,  work,  feed- 
ing, etc.  Especially  in  the  ripening  of  meat  a  specific  aroma  is  developed, 
which,  as  a  result  of  the  autolysation,  manifests  itself  both  by  the  odor 
and  taste  (M.  Miiller). 

Rigor  mortis,  which  occurs  after  death,  is  probably  the  result  of  a 
coagulation  of  the  myosin  through  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the 
muscles.  It  may  also  be  that  it  is  affected  by  a  particular  "rigor  mortis 
ferment."  It  first  affects  the  muscles  of  the  head,  and  then  spreads,  in 
accordance  to  Nysten's  law,  backward  over  the  body.  The  time  of  the 
appearance  of  rigor  mortis  depends  on  the  muscular  activity  before  death ; 
the  stronger  the  activity  of  the  muscles  during  life,  the  sooner  rigor  mortis 
sets  in.  In  exhausted  animals,  rigor  mortis,  under  certain  conditions, 
appears  immediately  after  death,  the  same  as  in  tetanic  muscles.  Also 
the  administration  of  certain  medicines,  according  to  Ostertag,  favors 
the  early  appearance  of  rigor  mortis  (veratrin,  alcohol,  ether,  etheric 
oils).  In  animals  which  were  affected  with  severe  febrile  diseases,  rigor 
mortis  either  does  not  manifest  itself  or  only  very  slightly,  being  hardly 
noticeable.  High  atmospheric  temperature  favors  the  appearance  of 
rigor  mortis,  while  cold  retards  it.  The  occurrence  of  rigor  mortis  is  in 
the  same  relation  to  its  dissolution :  the  sooner  rigor  mortis  sets  in  the 
quicker  the  muscles  will  relax  again.  Whether  the  dissolution  of  rigor 
mortis  results  from  an  increase  of  acid  formation  in  the  muscles,  which 
again  affects  the  solution  of  the  myosin,  or  whether  it  is  due  to  other 
influences,  is  still  the  subject  of  controversy. 

Von  Fiirth,  in  his  experiments  of  extracting  the  muscle  albumenoid  bodies  and 
of  their  supposed  relation  to  rigor  mortis,  obtained  results  which  appear  to  exclude 
that  rigor  mortis  is  affected  by  an  acid  precipitation  from  the  muscle  albumen ;  but 
an  attempt  to  deny  that  the  degree  of  muscular  acidity  has  no  influence  on  the  appear- 
ance of  rigor  mortis,  would  be  too  far  reaching.  In  the  post-mortem  acid  formation 
it  certainly  concerns  lactic  acid,  as  the  setting  free  of  inorganic  phosphoric  acid 
does  not  take  place.-  For  the  utilization  of  muscles  for  manufacturing  sausage  the 
fact  is  noteworthy  that  muscles  which  still  contain  the  animal  heat  and  in  which 
rigor  mortis  has  not  appeared,  may  absorb  up  to  70  volume  per  cent,  of  water  if  they 
have  been  previously  beaten,  or  if  they  were  torn  in  shreds  (Ostertag). 


38      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissue,  etc. 

The  reaction  of  living  muscles  is  slightly  alkaline  or  neutral,  and  is 
changed  under  normal  conditions  inside  3-6  hours  after  death  to  acid, 
through  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  formic  acid,  potassium  hypophos- 
phate.  The  latter  causes  a  swelling  and  loosening  of  the  connective 
tissue  elements  of  the  meat,  and  renders  the  meat  tender.  By  this  process 
the  so-called  ripening  of  the  meat  takes  place,  the  nature  and  further 
developments  of  which  is  discussed  in  Chap.  VIII.  The  acid  reaction 
of  the  muscles  becomes  changed  to  an  alkaline  reaction  with  the  advance- 
ment of  putrefaction. 

An  alkaline  reaction  of  completely  cooled  meat  "from  freshly  killed  animals 
always  indicates  an  abnormal  condition  before  slaughter.  According  to  Edelmann 
and  Noack  this  is  very  frequently  met  in  animals  which  were  slaughtered  under 
manifestations  of  suffocation  or  in  condition  of  exhaustion;  also  in  severe  febrile 
diseases,  especially  septic  conditions  and  pyemia,  there  may  be  an  alkalinity  of  the 
meat  resulting.  In  the  latter  cases  the  alkalinity  remains  permanently,  while  in  the 
first-mentioned  condition  an  acid  reaction  sometimes  occurs  after  48-72  hours.  An 
alkaline  reaction  of  meat  is  therefore  an  unsatisfactory  indication  only  when  it  is 
lasting,  resulting  soon  in  putrefaction  of  the  meat. 

The  principal  chemical  constituents  of  the  muscles  are  the  albu- 
menoids  and  the  nitrogenous  bodies  which  are  present  in  the  proportion 
of  from  16  to  25  per  cent.  Calculated  on  the  basis  of  dry  substances, 
meat  contains,  according  to  Salkowski,  77.4  per  cent,  soluable  albumen, 
10  per  cent,  albumen  which  is  soluable  in  cold  water  and  coagulable 
through  heat,  and  12  per  cent  albumen  soluable  in  cold  water,  but 
uncoagulable  (meat  bases,  lactic  acid,  albumenose,  peptone,  salts,  espe- 
cially phosphocarnic  acid  (Siegfried).  Fat  is  present  between  the  muscle 
fibres  in  the  form  of  globules,  to  the  extent  of  I  per  cent,  water,  in  an 
average  of  75  per  cent.  The  taste  of  the  meat  is  dependent  upon  the 
extractive  bodies,  principally  osmazon  (Landois),  and  the  so-called  meat 
bases :  karnin,  kreatin,  kreatinin,  xanthin,  sarkin,  hypoxanthin,  and  the 
muscle  salts.  The  most  important  salts  are  potassium  phosphate,  with 
magnesium  and  calcium  phosphate  and  the  iron  compounds,  which 
amount  to  i-i^  per  cent.  Of  the  carbohydrates,  glycogen  generally 
occurs  in  muscles  in  very  small  and  greatly  varying  quantities,  especially 
in  the  horse,  dog,  and  fetus. 

Of  the  gases  which  are  present  in  the  muscle  substance,  carbonic 
acid  is  found  in  15-18  volume  per  cent.  (Stintzing)  while  oxygen  is 
absent  (Hermann).  Besides  it  is  probable  that  the  volatile  sulphur  com- 
pounds first  demonstrated  by  Eber,  especially  H2S,  play  an  important 
part  in  the  changes  of  the  color  of  the  meat  after  death,  and  in  its  preser- 
vation (Glage).  Finally  enzymes  (soluble  ferments)  are  also  present 
in  the  muscle,  and  these  play  a  principal  part  in  the  ripening  of  meat. 


Connective  and  Elastic  Tissues — Fat  Tissue  39 

The  composition  of  the  meat  in  various  animals  and  of  some  of  the  important 
meat- food  products  is  tabulated  according  to  Konig  in  the  following  exhibit  (See 
Table,  pp.  40-41).  As  a  rule,  meat  which  is  rich  in  fat  is  always  poorer  in  water,  and 
its  content  of  albumen  stands  in  an  inverse  relation  to  the  richness  of  the  fat. 
According  to  Ignatiew,  meat  should  be  valued  in  accordance  with  its  content  of  the 
two  albumennoid  substances,  myosin,  and  myastromin  (Danilewsky).  The  first  is 
supposed  to  increase  gradually  from  the  muscles  of  the  head  toward  the  tail,  while 
the  latter  increases  in  the  reverse  order. 

Of  the  other  chemical  qualities  of  the  muscles,  their  reductive  prop- 
erties are  worthy  of  mention,  through  which  poisons  are  split  into  harm- 
less compounds,  and  coloring  matters  (bilirubin)  are  changed  into  color- 
less modifications. 

B.     Connective  and  Elastic  Tissues 

The  connective  tissue  which  contains  a  fibrous  structure  occurs  in 
every  part  of  the  body  in  the  most  varied  forms  and  connections.  Its 
color  is  usually  white,  blueish- white,  and  if  it  is  rich  in  elastic  fibres  it  is 
yellowish.  The  chemical  base  of  the  connective  tissue  is  formed  by  the 
albtimenoid  collagen  containing  sulphur,  which  in  cooking  is  changed 
into  glutin  (glue).  The  elastic  tissue  (ligamentum  nuchea,  yellow 
abdominal  fascia,  etc  ),  which  distinguishes  itself  by  tough  fibres  and  a 
yellow  color,  consists  chiefly  of  sulphur  free  albumenoid  elastin,  which 
cannot  be  converted  through  heat  into  glutin. 

C    Fat  Tissue 

The  fat  tissue,  which  occurs  in  closest  relation  to  the  connective 
tissue,  is  characterized  by  the  depositions  of  fat  cells  in  the  loose  con- 
nective tissue.  It  occurs  almost  all  over  the  body  in  single  or  in  larger 
connecting  masses.  The  largest  fatty  deposits  are  about  the  kidneys 
and  heart,  in  the  mesentery  (ruffle  fat),  retroperitoneal  fat  (leaf  lard  in 
hogs),  while  the  subcutaneous  fat  cushion  (bacon  of  hogs),  is  in  some 
parts  of  the  body  particularly  bulky.  The  fat  of  cattle  is  called  tallow, 
that  from  sheep  and  goats  is  termed  suet,  while  that  from  hogs  is  called 
lard.  All  properties  of  fat  are  considerably  influenced  by  the  species  of 
animals,  age,  sex,  and  nutritive  condition.  The  structure  and  consis- 
tency of  fat  tissues  still  retaining  the  animal  heat  are  transparent,  homo- 
genous, or  slightly  stringy  and  oily.  After  the  fat  stiffens,  which  depends 
on  its  melting  point  and  the  surrounding  temperature,  it  becomes  dull, 
greasy,  and  crumbling. 

The  color  of  the  fat  varies  between  the  purest  white  (hog,  sheep) 
and  a  satiated  yellow  (horse)  ;  also  gray  and  grayish- red  color  tints 
may  be  observed  (calf). 


40       Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 


Table  of  comparison  of  the  composition  and  the  utilization  of  various  meats  and 
food  products ,  according  to  Konig* 


6 

Designation 

Raw  nutritive  substances 

Utilizable  nutritive 
substances 

Nutritive  relation! 
of  nitrogenous 
to  nitrogen  free 
substances 

1 

co 
0  a; 

•*§ 

I 

| 

I 

\ 

0  $ 

| 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

iS 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 

17 

18 

)            (fat  
>Beef  -<  medium  fat  
1               1  lean 

i 

56.20 
71.50 
75.00 
71.00 
73.80 
55.25 
57.40 
74.20 
80.82 
79.89 
71.07 
75.55 
75.47 
71.55 
39.45 
25.00 
1.33 
0.70 

18-00 
20-10 
20-50 
19-95 
20-65 
16-85 
17-65 
21-50 
18-12 
15-21 
17-55 
18.43 
17.77 
19.92 
10.15 
15.50 
0.44 
0.26 

25.00 
7.40 
2.80 
8.00 
4.30 
27.00 
24.00 
2.50 
0.18 
2.47 
10.12 
4.45 
4.19 
3.65 
27.93 
17.00 
98.15 
99.04 

..?:.. 

,?.. 

0.80 
1.00 
1.20 
1.05 
1.25 
0.90 
0.95 
1.00 
0.85 
1.87 
0.95 

l!56 
1.55 
1.08 
42.50 
0.08 

17.55 
19.60 
19.99 
19.45 
20.13 
16.43 
17.21 
20.96 
17.67 
13.54 
15.62 
16.40 
15.82 
17.73 
9.03 

'6'.39 
0.23 

23?75 
7.03 
2.66 
7.60 
4.09 
25.65 
22.80 
2.38 
0.17 

2;30 

9.41 
4.14 
3.90 
3.39 
;25.97 

!9il28 
;95.08 

Asl: 
3.4 
0.9 
0.3 
1.0 
0.5 
4.5 
3.3 
0.3 
0.03 
•0.5 
1.5 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
9.5 

"585!i 
1,033.5 

Veal,  first  quality  

'.'.'.'.'. 

o!o3 
0.55 
0.31 
0.38 
1.00 
3.30 
21.18 

Pork,  first  quality  

0^561 

0^385 
1.01§ 
3.335 
21.39§ 

••'•• 

Blood 

Lung      

Heart 

Kidneys  .               

Spleen  
Liver 

Udder  
Bone  
Cattle  tallow 

Lard  

Preserved  meats  and  sausages 


19 

Smoked  meat  from  steer  

47  fi2 

97  10 

15  35 

10  59 

°fi  49 

20 

Ham,   pickled  or  smoked  

28.11 

24.74 

36!  45 

.... 



10.54 

24  12 

34  68 

3  7 

21 

99 

Bacon,  ditto  
G-riose   breast  

10.21 

8.95 

9-)      AK 

72  82 
31  49 





8.02 
4  56 

8.73 

90   Q1 

69.18 

19.8 

9^ 

Beef  sausage 

48  94 

20  39 

26  99 

4  43 

19  83 

OK     OA 

'M 

Cervelat  sausage  

24  18 

23  93 

45  93 



5  96 

93   33 

40    £0 

25 
26 

27 

Frankfurter  sausage  
Blood  sausage,  best  quality  .  .  . 
Liver  sausage,  medium  quality. 
Link  sausage  

42.80 
49.93 

47.80 
7  07 

12.51 
11.81 
12.89 
16  36 

39.11 
11.48 
25.10 
34  00 

2.49 
25.09 
12.00 
3°    39 

6  80 

3.09 
1.69 
2.21 
9.48 

12.20 
10.51 
11.47 
13  82 

37.15 
10.45 

22.84 
31  60 

23!  84 
11.40 
30  67 

7.8 
4.8 
5.9 

Meat  of  game  and  fowl 


29 
30 
31 

Rabbit  
Deer  
Chicken     lean 

74.16 
75.76 

7fi  22 

23.34 
19.11 

19  72 

1.13 
1.92 
1  42 

0.19 

0.42 
1  27 

::::: 

1.18 
1.13 
1  37 

22.76 
19.28 
19  23 

1.07 
1.82 
1  35 

0.19 
1.41 
1  9fi 

0.1 
0.3 

32 

Chicken   fat 

70  06 

18  49 

9  34 

1  20 

0  91 

18  03 

8  87 

1  19 

1      3 

33 

Turkey,  medium  fat  

CK  60 

24  70 

8  50 

*  *  "  *  * 

1  20 

24  08 

8  07 

A     0 

34 

Duck     wild 

70   S2 

92  65 

3  11 

2*33 



1  09 

22*08 

9  95 

9  31 

35 
36 

Goose,  fat.  
Pigeon  

38.02 
75  10 

15.91 
22  14 

45.59 
1  00 

6'76 



0.48 
1  00 

15.51 
21  59 

43.31 

0  95 

07K 

7.0 

0-1 

Meat  of  flsh 


37 

i  38 
1  39 
140 
.41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 

Salmon  
River  eel  
Sea   eel  
Herring  
Halibut  

64.00 
58.21 
72.90 
75.09 
75.24 
73.47 
79.63 
81.50 
82.42 
17  21 
63.64 
79.78 
82.67 
77.51 
80.50 
80.  OU 
77.60 
47.86 

21.14 
12.24 
17.96 
15.44 
18.53 
16.67 
18.42 
16.93 
15.97 
72.37 
24.17 
18.49 
14.60 
19.18 
17.52 
17.47 
18.10 
29.34 

13.53 

27.48 
7.82 
7.63 
5.16 
8.73 
0.53 
0.26 
0.31 
2.47 
0.91 
0.53 
0.53 
2.10 
0.74 
0.39 
2.28 
13.98 

*2  '.98 

::::: 

1.22 

20.51 
11.87 
17.42 
14.98 
17.97 
16.70 
17.87 
16.42 
15.49 
70.20 
22.96 
17.57 
14.16 

12.31 
25.01 
7.12 
6.94 

4.70 
7.94 
0.48 
0.24 
0.28 
2.25 
0.83 
0.48 
0.48 

1.5 
1       5.2 
i        1.0 
1.2 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.04 
0.04 
!        0.1 
2.89          0.3 
......          0.1 
!          0.1 

Carp  
Pike  
Haddock  .  .  . 
Cod  fish  
Haddock,  dried  and  smoked  
Frog  leg  

Sole  



Salmon  trout  

'i!30 

4    .    .    .    . 

.:;: 

18.60 
16.99 
16.95 
17.56 

28.46 

1.91 
0.67 
0.35 
2.07 
13.28 

i        0.3 

j        0.1 
.....  !        0.05 
0.3 

1.27  i        1.2 

Tench  . 

Turbot  . 

Caviar  

Fat  Tissue 


Table  of  comparison  of  the  composition  and  the  utilization  of  various  meats  and 
food  products,  according  to  Konig* — Continued 

Meat  of  invertebrate  animals 


Raw  nutritive  substances 

Utilizable  nutritive 
substances 

III 

Designation 

t" 

h 

j 

<n 

ii 

jhydrate 

tive  relat 
nltrogei 
nitrogen 
stances 

6 

, 

gs 

I 

I 

1 

I 

11 

I 

1 

fM 

55 

Oysters,    meat  juice  

87.36 

5.95 

1.15 

3.57 

2.03 

5.77 

1.05 

3.53 

1.1 

56 

83  61     Q  Q7     i  i1? 

Sen 

1   61 

94.7 

o   co 

57 

Lobster,  fresh  

8l!84 

14.49 

1.84 

0.12    

1.71 

13.77 

1.67     0.12 

0.3 

58 

Lobster,   preserved  

77.75 

18.13 

1.07 

0.58    

2.47 

17.22 

0.97     0.57 

0.2 

ESM 

River  crabs,  fresh  

81.22 

16.00 

0.46 

1  01 

1  31 

15  20 

9  42  i  i  nn  !          ft  i 

60 
61 

River   crabs,    preserved  

72.74 
78.81 

13.63 
15.83 

0.36 
1.32 

0.21    . 
2  42 

13.06 
1  62 

12.95 
15  04 

0.33 
1  20 

0.21 
2  40 

0.1 
0  3 

62 
63 

Crab,    preserved  
Great    snail 

70.80 

so.ro 

25.38 
16.34 

1.00 
1.38 

0.24 
0  45 

2.58 
1.33 

24.11 
15.52 

0.91 
1.26 

0.24 
0.45 

0.1 

0.3 

Meat  extracts 


1 

I 

i 

1 

1 

o  ^ 
A§ 

Designation 

£ 

+ 

3 

a  « 

"S 

o 

§ 

1 

| 

d 

3 

-3 

I 

§1 

o 

ga 

6 

c3 

a 

.£ 

B 

a 

i 

~  ~~ 

•g 

rf 

id 

c8  ® 

fe 

^ 

s 

3 

2_ 

ft 

Q 

««H 

g 

\ 

64 
65 

Liebig's    Meat    Extract         .    . 

17.70 
65  80 

9.17 

6*37 

6.91 

53.87 
9  26 

(?.59 
0.35 

0.648 
0.148 

0.21 
O.SK 

..?, 

a.26 

17.33 

15^65 
5.65 

Ahils    FliiirJ    FYtrnot... 

66     Armour's   (solid)   Extract  
67     Flagg's  (solid)   Extract.., 

21.00     9.32 
21.37  10.01 

16.12 
17.37 

42.08 
41-18 

0.567  j   6.58 
0.687     0.35 

20.25  15.45 
19.23  ;13.50 

*Konig,  The  Human  Foods  and  Delicacies,  etc.,  4th  Edition,   1904,   Bd.  II,   s.   1467. 

yFor  utilizable  nutritive  substances. 

JGlycogen. 

§  Carbohydrate. 


Chemically  fats  are  the  richest  substances  among  hydro-carbons. 
Fresh  adipose  tissue  shows  the  following  composition  in  one  hundred 
parts,  according  to  E.  Schulz  and  Reinecke : 


Species 


Steer 
Sheep 
Hog  . 


Nitro- 
genous 
substances 

1.16 
1.64 


Fat 

88.88 
87.88 
92.21 


Water 
9.96 

10.48 
6.44 


The  fat  itself  is  a  mixture  of  glycerides  (ester,  derivative  of  tri- 
equivalent  alcohol)  tripalmitin,  tristearin,  triolein,  which,  depending  upon 
their  predominance,  influence  the  consistency  of  the  fat. 


42      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 


D,     Bones  and  Bone  Marrow 

In  meat  inspection  the  bones  come  into  consideration,  principally  in 
regard  to  their  form,  for  the  purpose  of  recognizing  the  origin  and  deri- 
vation of  the  meat.  Structural  relations,  color,  and  compactness  of  bones 
are  only  rarely  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  other  properties. 

The  chemical  constituents  of  bones  are  bone  cartilage  (ossein)  30 
per  cent.,  inorganic  material  70  per  cent.,  and  a  small  quantity  of  fat. 
The  first  consists  principally  of  collagen,  which  is  converted  through 
boiling  into  glutin.  The  salts  in  the  dry  bone  consist  of  an  average  of 
87.7  per  cent,  calcium  phosphate,  9.1  calcium  carbonate,  2  per  cent,  calcium 
fluoride,  and  1.2  per  cent,  magnesium  phosphate.  Heinze  reports  the 
following  composition  for  cattle  and  sheep  bones : 

Cattle  bones  Sheep  bones 
per  cent.         per  cent. 

Calcium  carbonate 7-°7  7-°° 

Magnesium  phosphate 2.09  1.59 

Calcium  phosphate 58-3°  72-7° 

Calcium  fluoride 1.96  2.17 

Organic  substance 3°-5^  26.54 

The  bone  marrow  appears  as  a  red  and  reddish-white  substance  (fat 
marrow).  The  latter  consists  of  about  96  per  cent,  fat,  and  contains  a 
firmness  in  the  various  animals,  which  corresponds  to  the  consistence  of 
fat  in  the  respective  species.  The  red  bone  marrow  is  semi-solid. 

E,     Cartilage 

From  the  standpoint  of  meat  inspection  cartilage  is  of  only  very 
slight  importance.  It  consists  of  a  collagenous  basic  substance  which  is 
converted  through  boiling  into  gelatin. 

F,    Blood  and  Blood  Vessels 

The  question  regarding  the  quantity  of  blood  in  the  body  has  already 
been  considered  on  page  25.  In  thoroughly  bled  animals,  liquid  blood  is 
only  found  in  the  small  veins  of  the  muscles  and  organs,  while  coagulated 
blood  may  be  seen  in  the  heart  and  in  the  large  veins.  The  arteries  are 
always  empty  of  blood.  Regarding  the  color,  coagulation  and  microscop- 
ical appearance,  the  blood  of  healthy  animals  should  not  show  a  deviation 
from  the  normal.  There  is  a  peculiar  odor  of  the  blood,  characteristic 
to  each  animal  species.  It  results  from  the  volatile  fatty  acids  and 
appears  more  pronounced  upon  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid. 


Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels  43 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  blood  consists,  according  to  Konig, 
of  80.82  per  cent,  water,  18.12  per  cent,  nitrogenous  substances.  0.18 
per  cent,  fat,  0.03  per  cent,  nitrogen — free  extractive  bodies — and  0.85  per 
cent.  ash.  On  account  of  the  richness  of  the  blood  in  albumen,  it  is  a 
very  nutritive  food. 

G,     Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels 

Of  the  lymphatic  system  the  lymph  glands,  which  lately  have  been 
designated  as  lymph  nodes,  are  especially  of  great  importance  in  meat 
inspection.  Concerning  their  size  it  should  only  be  mentioned,  that  rela- 
tively they  appear  larger  in  younger  animals  than  in  old  ones.  The  same 
can  be  applied  to  the  lymph  contents  of  the  glands,  while,  moreover,  the 
intestinal  glands  are  richer  in  lymph  than  the  body  glands.  All  the  lymph 
vessels  of  a  certain  region  empty  into  a  certain  lymph  gland,  but  the  ana- 
tomical borders  of  such  a  region  are  not  established  in  the  entire  body.  As 
far  as  our  present  knowledge  of  the  lymphatic  system  permits  us  to  sepa- 
rate the  regions  of  the  various  lymph  glands,  it  may  be  accepted  that  these 
are  not  connected  with  each  other,  and  that  to  every  part  of  the  body 
belong  one  or  more  distinct  lymph  glands  (corresponding  lymph  glands). 
Their  size,  number,  and  location  are  subject  to  certain  deviations. 

For  the  purpose  of  meat  inspection  it  is  best  to  classify  the  lymph 
glands  in  accordance  with  their  draining  regions,  into  visceral  lymph 
glands,  muscular  or  body  lymph  glands,  and  mixed  lymph  glands.  To 
the  latter  class  belong  all  those  lymph  glands  which  receive  their  lymph 
not  alone  from  the  viscera,  but  also  from  the  muscles  (muscles,  skeleton, 
etc.). 

1.     Visceral  Lymph  Glands 

Visceral  lymph  glands  are  those  which  receive  their  lymph  princi- 
pally from  the  viscera  to  which  they  belong.  Those  lymph  glands,  which 
belong  functionally  to  the  various  organs  or  viscera  of  the  body,  and 
which  are  important  in  meat  inspection,  are  described  in  the  following:* 

(a)     Lymph  Glands  of  the  Digestive  Apparatus,  Including  th~e  Abdominal 

and  Pelvic  Cavities 

i.  Submaxillary  lymph  glands. — L.  Superficially  in  the  submaxillary 
space;  in  cattle  at  the  angle  of  the  lower  jaw  bone,  sometimes  present  as 
two  small  nodes;  in  hogs,  adjacent  and  to  the  inside  of  the  submaxillary 
salivary  gland.  A.  Superficial  parts  of  the  head,  interior  nasal  passages 
and  buccal  cavity.  E.  Superior  cervical  lymph  glands.  (Fig.  2ib, 

2211,    23U. 

*L  Signifies  the  location  of  the  lymph  gland,  A  afferent  vessels,  and   E  efferent 
vessels. 


44      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 


2.  Parotid  lymph  gland. — L.  Median  surface  of  the  parotid  and 
submaxillary  salivary  glands.  In  cattle  a  special  large  gland  extending 
over  the  maxillary  border  of  the  parotid,  and 
partly  laying  on  the  masseter  muscle.  In  hogs 
very  numerous,  large,  and  red  in  color.  A.  Dor- 
sal half  of  the  head,  cranial  cavity,  base  of  the, 
cranium,  tongue,  soft  palate,  esophagus,  and 
larynx.  E.  Superior  cervical  lymph  glands. 

3.  Superior    cervical    lymph    glands. — Partly 
united  with  portions  of  the  previous  gland  to  the 
retropharangeal  lymph  glands.     L.  Posterior  to 
the  larynx  and  pharynx  near  the  thyroid  gland ; 
in  cattle  at  the  base  of  the  cranium,  in  the  supe- 
rior part  of  the  pharyngeal  cavity  forming  two 
large  bodies.     A.     Inside  of  the  head,  together 
with  the  cranial,  buccal,  and  tracheal  cavities,  and 
the  efferent  lymph  vessels  of  I  and  2.    E.  Middle 
and  inferior  cervical  lymph  glands.      (Fig.   21  a, 

22U,  23V). 

4.  Middle    cervical    glands. — L.     Middle    of 
the  neck,  at  the  side  of  the  trachea,  anterior  to 
the  carotid  artery.     'A.  Esophagus  and  trachea, 
superior    cervical    glands.     E.  Inferior    cervical 
lymph  glands. 

5.  Inferior  cervical  glands,  prepectoral  glands. 
— L.  At  the  entrance  of  the  thorax  anterior  to 
the  trachea  and  extending  into  the  thoracic  cav- 
ity.   A.  Neighboring  parts,  shoulder,  upper  arm, 
and  efferent  lymph  vessels  from  middle  cervical 
glands   (and  therefore  also  from  I   and  3),  and 
also  from  the  prescapular  lymph  gland.    E.  Tho- 
racic duct,  i.   e.,    the    great    right    lymph    vein 
(Fig.  29b). 

6.  Gastric  lymph  glands. — L.      Small  curva- 
ture, toward  both  surfaces  of  the  stomach.     In 
ruminants  in  the  long  groove  of  the  rumen  and 
at  the  attachment  of  the  small   mesentery.     A. 
Wall    of    the    stomach.     E.  Receptaculum  chyli 
(Fig.  25). 

7.  Me  sent  eric  lymph  glands. — L.  Between  the 
peritoneal  folds  of  the  mesentery  along  the  small 
curvature   of   the    small   intestines,   between   the 
flexures  of  the  colon  and  in  the  mesentery  of  the 


Fig.  21.  Head  of  cow 
with  the  tongue  cut  out, 
a,  a',  retropharangeal 
lymph  glands ;  b,  sub- 
maxillary  lymph  glands; 
c,  tonsils;  d,  posterior 
nares ;  e,  cephalic  flexure ; 
f,  submaxillary  salivary 
gland;  g,  styloid  pro- 
cesses of  the  hyoid  bone. 


Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels 


45 


same.  In  hogs  also  a  group  at  the  superior  border  of  the  mesentery.  In 
dogs  on  the  jejunum  there  is  a  very  long  mesenteric  lymph  gland,  the 
so-called  pancreas  Aselli.  A.  Wall  of  large  and  small  intestines. 
E.  Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  24). 

8.     Anal  lymph  glands. — L.  Two  or  three  lymph  glands  in  the  peri- 


Fig.  22.  Head  of  cow,  the  right  submaxillary  and  left  styloid  of  the  hyoid  bone 
of  which  are  removed.  I.  Articular  surface  of  the  temporal  bone*.  2.  External 
auditory  meatus.  3.  Jugular  process  of  the  occipital  bone.  4.  Petrous  bone. 
5.  Muscular  attachment  to  petrous  bone.  6.  Occipital  condyle.  7.  Medulla  oblongata. 
8.  Pterygoid  bone.  9.  Tonsils.  10.  Styloid  process  of  the  hyoid  bone.  n.  Thyroid 
cornua  of  the  hyoid  bone.  12.  Cricoid  laryngeal  cartilage.  13.  Ring  of  the  trachea  ; 
a,  masseter  muscle;  b.  temporal  muscle;  c.  tensor  muscle  of  the  palate  ;  d,  levator 
muscle  of  the  palate ;  e,  pterygopharyngeal  muscle ;  /,  chondro-,  crico-,  thyreo- 
pharyng.  muscle;  g,  hyoglossal  muscle;  h,  styloglossal  muscle;  i.  M.  keratohyodeus 
brevis;  k,  M.  hyothyroideus ;  /,  and  m,  M.  omohyoideus;  n,  M.  sternothyreoid ; 
o,  M.  myoglossus ;  p,  M.  mylohyoid. ;  q,  M.  sternhoyoideus;  r,  M.  long,  capit. ;  s,  M. 
rect.  capit. ;  /,  arcus  palato  glossus ;  S,  submaxillary  salivary  gland ;  u,  submaxillary 
lymph  gland ;  V  retropharangeal  lymph  glands. 

proctal  connective  tissue  in  the  vicinity  of  the  levator  ani  muscle.  A.  Rec- 
tum, perineum,  and  root  of  the  tail.  E.  Sublumbar  lymph  glands 
(Fig.  2;b). 

9.  Hepatic  lymph  glands — Portal  lymph  glands. — L.  In  the  posterior 
hepatic  fissure   (Porta  hepatis)  ;  in  hogs  on  the  portal  vein  around  the 


46      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

foramen  of  Winslow,  usually  conspicuous  by  their  brown  color.    A.  Liver 
tissue.    E.  Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  25k  and  26c). 

10.  Splenic  lymph  glands. — L.  Hilus  of  the  spleen,  between  the  lay- 
ers of  the  gastro-splenic  ligament.  A.  Spleen,  stomach,  and  omentum. 
E.  Receptaculum  chyli. 

i.  Sublumbar  lymph  glands. — L.  Side  and  ventral  surface  of  the 
lumbar  vertebrae,  dorsal  to  the 
great  blood  vessels,  partially  cov- 
ered by  the  lumbar  muscles.  'A. 
Dorsal  abdominal  wall,  lumbar  ver- 
tebrae, internal  genital  organs. 
Lymph  vessels  from  the  external 
and  internal  iliacs,  deep  inguinal, 
sacral,  and  popliteal  glands.  E. 
Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  276). 


Fig.  23.  Right  half  of  a  vertical  section  of  a  hog's  head ;  i,  cartilaginous  nucleus 
attaching  the  hyoid  to  the  temporal  bone;  2,  jugular  process  of  the  occipital  bone; 
a,  M.  longus  coli;  b,  M.  sternocleido  mastoid. ;  c,  M.sternocephalic. ;  d,  M.pterygoid 
medial.;  e,  Ml  sternohyoid. ;  f,  soft  palate;  g,  post.  n#res;  S,  submaxillary  salivary 
gland;  uf  submaxillary  lymph  gland;  V,  retropharangeal  lymph  gland. 

12.  Sacral  lymph  glands.— L.  Along    the    ventral    border    of    the 
sacrum.     A.  Dorsal  pelvic  wall,  rectum,    and    internal    genital    organs. 
E.  Sublumbar  glands  (Fig.  27d). 

13.  Internal  iliac  lymph  glands.— L.  At  the  angle  between  the  ex- 
ternal iliac  and  the  hypogastric  arteries,  i.  e.,  between  the  former  and  the 
abdominal  aorta,  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  ileum.     A.  Abdominal  and 
pelvic  walls,  bones  of  the  pelvis,  sacrum,  muscles  of  the  croup,  rectum, 


Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels 


47 


internal  genital  organs,  external  iliac  lymph  glands.   E.  Sublumbar  lymph 
glands  and  the  receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  270). 


D 


Fig.  24.  In- 
testinal canal 
of  cattle  spread 
out.  C,  colon; 
Ca,  caecum;  D, 
duodenum ;  /, 
jejunum;  //, 
ileum;  R,  rec- 
tum ;  m,  mes- 
enteric  lymph 
glands  of  the 
small  intes- 
tines. 


Fig.  25.  Stomach  and  portion  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal  of  a  hog;  a,  pyloric  portion  of  the 
stomach;  b,  duodenum;  c.  jejunum;  d,  caecum; 
e,  colon;  f,  rectum;  h,  foramen  of  Winslow ; 
i,  portal  vein;  k,  hepatic  lymph  glands;  /,  gas- 
tric lymph  glands ;  m,  esophagus. 


48    Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 


Fig.  26.  Gastric  surface  of  the 
liver  of  cattle;  a,  vena  cava;  b, 
entrance  of  the  portal  vein;  c, 
portal  lymph  glands ;  d,  lobus  cau- 
datus  (Spigelium)  ;  e,  gall  bladder. 

14.  External  iliac  lymph 
glands. — L.  Small  and  de- 
tached, in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  angle  of  the  ileum,  in 
the  angle  between  both 
branches  of  the  circumflex 
iliac  artery.  A.  Abdominal 
wall,  lateral  surface  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  thigh.  E. 
Sublumbar  lymph  glands. 

(b)   Lymph     Glands    of    the 
Respiratory  Apparatus,  and 
d  Thoracic  Cavity 

The  lymph  glands  described 
under  A  from  1-5  belong  also 

Fig.  27.  Left  hind-quarter  of  a 
bull,  cut  very  long.  A,  aorta;  V, 
vena  cava;  Z,  diaphragm;  ZP , 
pillars  of  the  diaphragm;  L,  ex- 
ternal inguinal  canal ;  N,  left  kid- 
ney ;  Nnr,  right  adrenal  capsule ; 
Nnl,  left  adrenal  capsule;  P,  pan- 
creas; R,  renal  artery;  /,  external 
iliac  artery,  a,  superficial  inguinal 
lymph  gland ;  b,  anal  lymph 
gland ;  c,  internal  iliac  gland : 
d,  sacral  lymph  gland;  e,  lumbar 
glands;  f,  renal  lymph  gland. 


Fig.  27 


Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels 


49 


to  the  respiratory  apparatus.  As  previously  stated,  they  receive  lymph 
from  regions  belonging  in  parts  to  the  digestive  as  well  as  to  the  respira- 
tory apparatus. 

6.  Bronchial  lymph  glands. — L.  Bifurcation  of  the  trachea,  in  the 
lung  substance  at  the  branching  of  the  bronchi.  In  cattle  they  form  a  con- 
tinuous chain  with  the  posterior  mediastinal  lymph  glands ;  there  is  one 
large  or  several  small  glands  to 
the  left  of  the  arch  of  the  aorta ; 
one  on  the  right,  at  the  branch- 
ing of  the  bronchus  of  the  ceph- 
alic lobe,  or  at  the  root  of  .the 
lobule  of  the  right  lobe,  besides 
a  lymph  gland  of  the  size  of  a 
hazelnut  at  the  base  of  the  divi- 
sion between  the  cardiac  and 
diaphragmatic  lobe  of  the  right 
lung.  In  hogs  there  is  generally 
another  lymph  gland  at  the  at- 
tachment of  the  mediastinum  at 
the  dorsal  angle  of  the  bifurca- 
tion of  the  two  principal  bronchi 
(middle  bronchial  lymph  gland). 
A.  Lungs  and  lymph  vessels 
from  the  posterior  mediastinal 
gland.  E.  Thoracic  duct  and 
partly  to  the  posterior  mediasti- 
nal glands  (Fig.  28  a,  b). 

7.  Mediastinal  lymph  glands. 
(a)  Anterior  mediastinal  glands. 
L.  Numerous  in  the  pre-cardial 
mediastinal  space  near  the  supe- 
rior vena  cava.  In  cattle  several 
large  lymph  glands  (Fig.  29  a), 
above  the  first  section  of  the 
breastbone,  near  the  entrance  of 
the  thorax.  A.  Heart,  pericar- 
dium, thymus  gland,  thoracic  wall, 


Fig.  28.  Lungs  and  heart  of  steer,  sus- 
pended dorsal  view.  Aa,  aorta  ascen- 
dens;  Ad,  aorta  descendens  cut  and 
flapped  over  to  the  left ;  Ap,  art.  pulmo- 
nalis ;  Acs,  left  cordal  atrium;  L,  left, 
L',  right  lung;  Oe,  esophagus;  T,  tra- 
chea ;  a,  right  superior  bronchial  lymph 
gland;  b,  left  bronchial  .lymph  gland;  c, 
posterior  mediastinal  lymph  glands. 


diaphragm,  mediastinum.     E.    Thoracic  duct  or  great  right  lymph  vein. 

(b)     Posterior   mediastinal   lymph   glands. — L.    In   the   post-cardial 

mediastinum,  along  the  esophagus,  and  posterior  aorta.     In  cattle  8-12 

lymph  glands  are  located  along  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  esophagus,  the 

posterior  node  of  which  is  usually  strikingly  large.    'A.  Esophagus,  peri- 

5 


50     Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc, 


cardium,  diaphragm,  mediastinum,  parietal  surface  of  the  liver.  In  hogs 
they  are  very  small  or  absent  (Fig.  280).  E.  Efferent  vessels  empty  in 
part  into  the  bronchial  glands,  in  part  into  the  anterior  mediastinal  glands 
and  in  part  into  the  thoracic  duct. 

8.  Lymph  glands  of  the  thoracic  wall. —  (a)  Dorsal  lymph  glands.— 
L.  Small,  to  the  side  of  the  vertebrae,  between  the  consecutive  articula- 
tions of  the  heads  of  the 
ribs,  and  between  the 
layers  of  the  intercostal 
muscle.  A.  Dorsal  ver- 
tebrae, muscles  of  the 
same,  pleura,  diaphragm, 
and  intercostal  muscles. 
E.  Thoracic  duct. 

(b)  Inferior  thoracic 
lymph  glands. — L.  Dor- 
sal surface  of  the  breast- 
bone along  the  internal 
thoracic  vein,  i.  e.,  be- 
tween the  costal  carti- 
lage-breastbone articu- 
lations. In  hogs  they 
are  only  exceptionally 
present.  A.  Straight  ab- 
dominal, transverse  ab- 
dominal, thoracic,  and 
intercostal  muscles, 
pleura  and  diaphragm. 
E.  Receptaculum  chyli, 
inferior  cervical  glands 
(Fig.  29a). 

(c)  Lymph  glands  of 
the  genito-urinary  ap- 
paratus. 

( i )  Renal  lymph 
glands. — L.  Hilus  of  the 
kidneys,  at  the  angle  be- 
tween the  aorta  and  re- 
nal artery  or  posterior  vena  cava,  and  renal  vein.  'A.  Kidneys.  E.  Recep- 
taculum chyli  (Fig.  2/b). 

(2-4)  Lymph  glands,  which  have  been  described  under  (a),  11-13. 
A.  Ureters,  bladder,  urethra,  and  genitals  inside  of  the  pelvic  cavity. 
E.  Receptaculum  chyli  and  sublumbar  lymph  glands. 


Fig.  29.  Portion  of  the  left  thoracic  wall  of  heifer. 
A,  art.  thoracic,  int. ;  V,  vena  thoracic,  int. ;  »', 
muse,  sternocephalic. ;  M,  muse,  transvers.  thorac. 
cut  through.  PP' ' ,  muse,  pectoral. ;  R,  ribs ;  Z,  dia- 
phragm ;  a,  inferior  thoracic  lymph  glands ;  a',  an- 
terior mediastinal  gland;  b,  inferior  cervical  or  pre- 
pectoral  lymph  glands. 


Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels  51 

(5)  Superficial  inguinal  glands.  —  L.  In  male  animals  these  include 
several  lymph  nodes,  between  the  abdominal  wall  and  the  prepucp  and 
scrotum.  In  female  animals  they  are  located  superficially  behind  the 
udder.  In  cowrs  these  are  the  large  lymph  glands  on  each  side  behind  and 
above  the  udder  (supramammary  lymph  glands).  A.  External  genitals, 
udder,  ventral  abdominal  wall  and  median  surface  of  the  thigh.  E.  Deep 
inguinal  lymph  gland  (Fig. 


2,     Body  Lymph  Glands 

As  applied  to  meat  inspection  the  term  muscle  or  body  lymph  glands 
refers  to  those  lymph  glands  which  drain  regions  in  the  skeleton  and 


Fig.  30.  Left  fore-quarter  of  heifer  with  exposed  prescapular  lymph  gland,  a,a  m. 
trapesius  cervical,  and  thoracal.,  b,  b'  m.  omotransversarius ;  c,  c' ,  c" ,  d,  m.  brachioce- 
phalicus  (of  which  d  is  the  m.  cleidomasloideus),  c  jugular  vein,  f,  and  g,  m  sterno- 
cephalic.  (superficial  and  deep  portion),  h,  sternum,  /,  m.  pectoral,  superficial., 
k,  spinal,  scapul.,  /.  prescapular  lymph  gland,  m,  pars  acromial  and  m'  pars  scapular, 
of  the  m.  deltoideus,  n,  caput.  lateral,  and  n'  caput.  long,  of  the  m.  triceps  brachii, 
o,  m.  latissim.  dorsi,  />,  rr.  serrat.  ventral.,  q,  m.  pectoral,  profund.,  r,  m.  obliq.  ext. 
abdominal. 

muscles,  i.  e.,  those  tissues  which  enclose  them  as  well  as  the  bones  and 
skin,  but  they  do  not  receive  lymph  from  the  viscera. 

The  body  lymph  glands,  which  are  important  in  meat  inspection,  are 
the  following: 

i.  Prescapular  lymph  glands. — L.  Anterior  border  of  the  shoulder, 
above  the  scapulo-humeral  articulation,  and  covered  principally  by  the 
angularis  scapulae  muscle  and  sometimes  by  the  dorsal  border  of  the 
mastoido-humeralis  muscle.  A.  Xeck,  shoulder,  upper  and  lower  leg. 
E.  Inferior  cervical  lymph  glands  (Fig.  30!). 


52      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

2.  Axillary  lymph  glands. — L.  Median  surface  of  the  shoulder,  dor- 
sal border  of  the  pectoralis  minor  muscle,  posteriorly  to  the  shoulder 
joint,  near  the  entrance  of  the  lateral  thoracic  vein  into  the  axillary  vein. 

They  are  usually  ab- 
sent in  hogs.  A.  Shoul- 
der, upper  arm,  thorac- 
ic wall,  and  elbow 
lymph  gland.  E.  In- 
ferior cervical  lymph 
glands. 

3.  Elbow  lymph 
glands.  -  -  They    occur 
only  in  the  horse.     L. 
Median  side  of  the  up- 
per arm  near  the  cubi- 

n          ^         B^^  ta^       articulation       be- 

tween the  biceps  bra- 
chii  muscle,  and  the 
median  anconeus  mus- 
cle on  the  brachial  vein. 
A.  Foot  and  lower  arm. 
E.  Axillary  and  pre- 
scapular  lymph  glands. 

4.  Precrural  lymph 
glands. — L.  In  the  ten- 
donous  portion   of  the 
external  abdominal 
muscle  on  the  free  bor- 
der  of  the   fascia   lata 
muscle    in   the   middle, 
between  the  patella  and 

Fig.  31.  Left  hind- 
quarter  of  steer  with  ex- 
posed precrnral  and  pop- 
liteal lymph  glands;  a,  m. 
glutens  superficial.,  which 
fuse  with  b  and  bf  the 
m.  biceps  femoris ;  c,  pop- 
liteal lymph  gland ;  d,  m. 
semi-tendinos. ;  e,  m.  semi- 
membranos. ;  f,  m.  glutens 
medius;  g,  m.  tensor  fas- 
ciae lat.  h,  m.  cutaneus 
maxium. ;  i,  m.  quadriceps 
femoris ;  /,  precrural  or 
kneefold  lymph  gland,  1, 
lateral  angle  of  the  ileum 
(hip  bone). 


J 


Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels 


53 


the  external  angle  of  the  ileum.  In  cattle  and  hogs  this  gland  is  a  long 
single  one.  A.  Abdominal  wall  and  lateral  surface  of  the  posterior  limb. 
E.  Sublumbar  and  lateral  iliac  glands  (Figs.  31!  and  32f). 

5.  Popliteal  lymph  gland. — L.  On  the  gastrocnemius  muscle, 
between  the  biceps  femoris  muscle  and  the  semitendinosus  muscle.  It  is 
frequently  absent  in  hogs,  but  there  is  always  present  a  superficial  gland 
of  the  size  of  a  small  hazelnut  in  the  subcutis  of  the  hollow  of  the  hock 
about  a  handbreadth  from  the  point  of  the  hock.  A.  Lower  part  of  leg 


Fig.  33 

Fig.  32.  Median  tiew  of  the  right  hind-quarter  of  a  hog  with  exposed  precrural 
lymph  gland.  I,  pelvic  symphysis ;  2,  first  sacral  vertebra;  a,  m.  gracilis ; 
b,  m.  quadriceps  femor. ;  c ,  m.  tensor  fascia  lat. ;  d,  m.  obliquus  intern,  and  transver- 
sus  abdominal. ;  e,  m.  iliopsoas ;  f,  precrural  lymph  gland. 

Fig.  33.  Lateral  view  of  the  right  hind-quarter  of  a  hog  with  exposed  popliteal 
lymph  gland  a. 

and  foot.  E.  Deep  inguinal,  sublumbar  and  external  ischial  lymph 
glands  (Fig.  31  c  and  33  a). 

6.  Deep  inguinal  lymph  glands. — L.  In  the  inguinal  canal  lying 
above  the  femoral  artery  and  vein.  Only  in  the  horse  do  they  exist  as 
large  glands.  A.  Posterior  limb  with  the  exception  of  the  external  sur- 
face of  the  thigh  and  muscle  thereof;  abdominal  wall.  E.  Sublumbar 
lymph  glands  and  feceptaculum  chyli. 

/.  External  ischial  lymph  gland  (Franck). — L.  In  cattle  about  the 
size  of  a  walnut  on  the  ventral  border  of  the  coccygeus,  covered  by  the 
broad  ligament  of  the  pelvis  (Stroh).  In  hogs  it  lays  usually  more  super- 


54      Chap.  II.      Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

ficially.  A.  Pelvic  and  rump  muscles  and  popliteal  lymph  gland.  E.  Sacral 
and  sublumbar  lymph  glands.  In  ruminants  under  the  skin  of  the 
triangle  in  front  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ileum.  A.  Neighboring 
parts  of  the  skin.  E.  Precrural  lymph  gland. 

In  the  subcutis  there  are  besides  small  lymph  glands  at  various  parts ; 
they  are,  however,  not  constant  in  their  position  and  they  also  vary  in  size. 

H,     Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Most  Important  Viscera 

Every  veterinary  inspector  should  be  thoroughly  versed  concerning  the 
anatomical  characteristics  of  the  normal  viscera  of  the  domesticated  ani- 
mals, and  therefore  the  principal  differential  signs  of  certain  viscera  will 
be  briefly  specified  below. 

1.  Tongue.     Cattle* — Round,  large  body;  mucous  membrane  frequently  shows 
blackish   spots;   the  filiform  papillae  are  horny,   especially  strong  along  the  lateral 
border;  numerous  fungiform  papillae  mostly  arranged  in  groups  and  scattered  over 
the  entire  dorsum;  28-34  circumvallate  papillae,  which  are  arranged  in  two  rows  in 
the  form  of  a  V ;  the  foliate  papillae  are  absent ;  the  epiglottis  is  frequently  attached 
and  appears  oval.     Sheep   and  Goats. — Similar  to  cattle;  the  center  of  the  tip   is 
slightly  grooved;   the  papillae  of  the  body  are  comparatively  even   larger   than   in 
cattle  and  are  grouped   into  compact  masses;   filiform   and   fungiform   papillae   are 
also  present  on  the  inferior  surface ;  sheep  have  18-24,  goats  have  12  circumvallate 
papillae.     Hogs. — Long  and  narrow ;   2  circumvallate  papillae  and  numerous   fungi- 
form   papillae   at  the   base ;    long,   soft  papillae   directed   backwards ;    foliate   papillae 
have  mostly  five  cross  fissures ;  epiglottis  broad,  at  the  free  border  flatly  rounded. 
Horses. — Flat,  even,  long  point;  intense  toughness  of  the  mucous  membrane  in  the 
dorsum;  fungiform  papillae  especially  well  defined  on  the  lateral  surface;  2  circum- 
vallate and  2  foliate  papillae  with  3-10  cross  furrows ;  epiglottis  leaf-shaped.     Dogs. — 
Broad,  flat,  sharp  lateral  borders,  bright  red  color;  under  the  mucous  membrane  on 
the  posterior   surface  is    found   the   flask  shaped   cartilage-like   body,   the    so-called 
lyssa;   long,    soft   papillae   at   the   base;   4-6   circumvallate   papillae;    foliate   papillae, 
indistinct,  with  5-7  cross  fissures ;  epiglottis  rhomboidal. 

2.  Stomach. — The  relation  of  the  stomachs  of  the   ruminants  do  not  require 
special  mention.     Hogs. — Triangular  dilation  on  the  left  dorsal  end ;   cardiac  por- 
tion funnel-shaped ;  the  portion  covered  by  esophageal  mucous  membrane  is  small ; 
at  the  elongation  of  the  small  curvature  lays  the  cone-shaped  pylorus,  which  con- 
tains a  spincter  muscle.     Horses. — Left  half  of  the  stomach  covered  with  esophageal 
mucous  membrane,  which  is  sharply  separated  by  a  jagged  border  from  the  glandu- 
lar mucous  membrane;  esophageal  orifice  is  slanting,  with  spincter  muscle;  double 
pyloric,  sphincter.    Dogs.—  Left  half  round,  pyloric  part  shaped  like  intestines;  esoph- 
ageal orifice  conical,  single  pylorus  sphincter;  esophageal  region  absent. 

3.  Intestinal  Canal. — In  cattle,  swine,  and  goats  the  colon  is  spirally  coiled  upon 
itself  while  externally  and  ventrally  to  it  lays  'the  jejunum  on  a  short  mesentery, 
hanging  in  numerous  convolutions.    In  hogs  the  colon  forms  a  convolution  the  shape 
of  a  nine-pin.     Regarding  the  diameter,  the  colon  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  dogs 
differs  only  slightly  from  the  small  intestines ;  in  horses  and  hogs  the  colon  is  con- 

*  Regarding  the  weight  of  the  liver,  heart,  spleen,  kidneys,  and  lungs  of  cattle 
see  also  page  57. 


Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Most  Important  Viscera  55 

siderably  larger  than  the  small  intestines.     Colon  and  cecum  of  the  hog  and  horse 
have  longitudinal  muscular  bands  and  are  sacculated. 

4.  Liver. — Color  is  generally  reddish-brown ;   in   fat  animals  and  in  those  of 
advanced  pregnancy  it  is  yellowish-brown.    Cattle. — Indistinctly  three-lobed,  Spigelian 
lobe    rounded  on  the  right  lobe ;  falciform  ligament  absent,  and  as  a  rule  the  ligi- 
mentum  teres ;  gall  bladder  pear-shaped,  extending  a  long  distance  over  the  ventral 
border    of   the    liver,    average    weight,    according    to    Schmaltz,  g1,  of    the    dressed 
weight ;  in  cattle  of  over  250  kg.,  dressed  weight,  5-6  kg. ;  in  lighter  animals,  3-4^2 
kg.     Sheep  and  Goats. — Covering  of  the  ventral  border  at  the  hight  of  the  attach- 
ment of  the  round  ligament  relatively  deeper  than  in  cattle,  the  lobus  Spigelii  tri- 
angular running  into  a  point ;  the  gall  bladder  appears  similar  to  that  in  cattle ;  weight 
5*3    of  the  dressed  weight,  from  375-875  g.       Hogs. — Four  lobes  besides  the  lobus 
quadratus  and  caudatus;  prominent  esophageal  notch,  the  gall  bladder  deep  in  the 
right  portion  of  the  middle  lobe ;  the  head  of  the  gall  bladder  does  not  quite  reach 
the  ventral  border  of  the  liver ;  the  portal  vein  is  at  the  dorsal  border  of  the  liver, 
more  or  less  surrounded  by  the  liver  parenchyma ;  lateral  ligaments  are  absent ;  liver 
lobules  are  remarkably  distinct,  due  to  the  rich  development  of  the  interlobular  con- 
nective tissue;   weight,  ~0    of  the  dressed  weight,   ^  kg.     Horses. — Three  distinct 
lobes,  the  lobus  and  processus  caudatus  running  into  a  point  (lobus  Spigelii;,  deep 
esophageal  notches ;  gall  bladder  absent ;  average  weight,  5  kg.,  in  old  horse  often 
only  2.5-3.5  kg.    Dogs. — Frcm  the  parietal  surface  four  lobes,  and  from  the  visceral 
6  lobes  are  noticeable ;   deep  esophageal  notch ;  the  cavity  for  the  gall  bladder  is 
formed  by  the  right  border  of  the  lobus  quadratus,  and  the  left  border  of  the  right 
middle  lobe;  the  head  of  the  gall  bladder  does  not  reach  the  ventral  border  of  the 
liver. 

5.  Pancreas.     Cattle. — Light  yellow-brown  to  reddish  yellow-brown,  free  of  fat. 
Calves  and  Sheep. — Similar  to  cattle;  in  fattened  animals  it  is  lighter  in  color.    Hogs. — 
Grayish-yellow,    extensively    intermixed    with     fat.       Horses — Reddish-yellow     to 
reddish-gray.     Dogs. — Pale  red. 

6.  Spleen.     Cattle. — Long  and  flat,  uniformly  broad,  with  rounded  edges ;  in  bulls 
and  fattened  steers,  reddish-brown;  in  cows,  grayish-blue;  consistence  in  bulls  and 
fattened  steers  quite  dense,  in  the  cow  loose;  the  borders  of  the  first  are  rounded, 
in  the  latter,  they  are  sharp.  The  surfaces  in  the  bulls  and  steers  are  arched ;  in  the 
cow  flat;  the  follicles  in  the  first  are  larger  (up  to  the  size  of  hemp  seeds)    than  in 
the  latter ;  weight  in  animals  dressing  over  250  kg.,  i  kg. ;  in  those  dressing  below 
that  weight,  0.5-0.75  kg.     Calves. — Reddish-brown  to  blueish-violet ;  borders  and  sur- 
faces are  rounded ;  consistence  soft.     Sheep  and  Goats. — Blunt,  angular,  of  the  shape 
of  a  palm  of  the  hand;   reddish-brown;   consistence  soft  to  elastic.     Hogs. — Long 
longue-shaped,  with  the  exception  of  the  ends,  which  are  almost  uniformly  broad; 
cross-section  is  triangular ;  pale  red ;  consistence  soft,  loose.    \Horses — Flat,  elongated, 
triangular,  and  slightly  bended  in  a  shape  of  a  scythe ;  blueish-red,  assuming  a  shade 
of  reddish-brown;  the  curved  anterior  border  is  thinner  than  the  rounded  posterior 
border;  weight,    zko     of  the  body  weight,  0.5-1.5  kg.     Dogs. — Tongue-shaped,  broad 
at  the  ventral  extremity;  light  red;  weight,  5^5  to  eoo   of  the  body  weight. 

7.  Lungs.     Cattle. — Left  lung  has  three  lobes,  cephalic,  cardiac,  and  diaphrag- 
matic;  right  lung  four  to  five  lobes;  the  division  of  lobules  is  more  pronounced 
than   in   any  other -food  animal;    intralobular  connective   tissue   is   well   developed. 
Sheep. — Structure  of  lobules  very  indistinct;   in  the  goat,  however,  it  is  more  dis- 
tinct.    Hogs. — In  the  left  lun#,  two  to  three  lobes  (the  cephalic  lobe,  which  is  sometimes 
divided  and  the  principal  lobe),  the  right  lung  has  four  lobes.     Horses — The  left 
lung  has  two  lobes  (cephalic  and  principal  lobes)  ;  the  right  has  three;  lobular  struc- 
ture not  very  distinct;  the  bronchial  tube  for  the  cephalic  lobe  of  right  lung,  which 


56      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

originates  directly  from  the  trachea,  and  which  is  present  in  ruminants  and  hogs,  is 
absent.  Dogs.—  Leit  lung  has  three,  right  lung  has  four  separate  lobes,  the  notches 
of  which  extend  up  to  the  principal  bronchi ;  lobular  structure  is  indistinct,  fre- 
quently anthracosis  is  seen. 

8.  Thyroid  gland.     Cattle. — Two  flat  lobes  connected  by  an  isthmus  which  is 
1-1.5  cm-  broad;  structure  lobulated,  light  reddish-brown.     Calves. — Darker,  isthmus 
stronger.    Sheep. — On  each  side  a  thick  brownish-red  lobe,  with  the  appearance  very 
much  like  muscle;  isthmus  very  indistinct.     Hogs. — Connected,  flat,  not  lobulated, 
dark-red.    Morses. — Each  side  portion  roundish,  oval,  of  the  size  of  a  prune,  reddish 
brown,  isthmus  mostly  consists  only  of  connective  tissue.     Dogs. — Side  lobe  large, 
elongated,   isthmus   in   large   dogs   very   distinct,   in   smaller   dogs   only   slightly   or 
unobservable. 

9.  Thymus  gland    (Sweetbread,  German  kalbsmilch,  bries,  broschen).    Cattle. — 
Divided,  lobulated,  whitish-yellow,  first  disappears  from  the  neck  portion ;   in   the 
thorax  even  after  8-9  years  it  is  plainly  noticeable.    Calves. — Reaches  up  to  the  lar- 
ynx ;  in  the  first  week  of  life  it  weighs  100-200  g.,  after  4-6  weeks,  400-600  g.     Hogs. — 
Both  cervical  lobes  reach  to  the  throat,  color  grayish-yellow.     Horses. — Disappears 
at  2-2^  years.    Dogs. — Flat  body,  which  divides  anteriorly  and  also  posteriorly  into 
two  lobes ;  pale-grap ;  only  traces  left  after  2-3  years. 

10.  Heart. — In   all  animals    reddish-brown ;   consistence   firm.     Cattle. — In   the 
fibrous  ring  of  the  aorta  are  two  heart  bones,  which  in  calves  are  cartilaginous  until 
the  fourth  week.     Hogs. — Apex  more  rounded  than  in  sheep ;  heart  cartilage  ossi- 
fies in  older  age,  as  in  the  horse.    Dogs. — Almost  round;  heart  cartilage  is  absent, 
or  is  very  small. 

11.  Kidneys.     Cattle. — Consists    of    16-26    lobules,    which    fuse    in    the    deeper 
portion,  and  as  there  are  just  as  many  calices  and  renal  papillae,  there  is  no  true 
kidney  pelvis;    reddish-brown;    average   weight     3^0     of   the  body   weight,   952   g. 
Sheep  and  Goats. — Bean-shaped ;  not  lobulated,  thick,  arched ;  dark-brown  to  brown  ; 
mutual    renal    papillae    and    pelvis.    \Hogs. — Bean-shaped,    not    lobulated,    flattened ; 
brown  to  yellow-brown;    10-12  renal  papillae;  pelvis   with   several  calices;   average 
weight,    T^o    of  the  body  weight,  420  g.      Horses. — Left  kidney  longer  than  broad, 
(bean-shaped)  ;  the  right  is  triangular,  flat,  not  lobulated;  brown;  renal  papillae  are 
fused  into  a  crescent  projection;  kidney  pelvis  has  two  terminal  recesses.     Dogs. — 
Bean-shaped,  thick,  only  one  renal  papillae ;  reddish-brown ;  kidney  pelvis  has  two 
terminal  recesses. 

12.  Urinary    bladder.     Cattle. — Very    large,    almost    entirely    covered    by    the 
peritoneum ;  the  triangular  space  between  the  orifices  of  the  ureters  and  the  urethra 
called  the  trigone,  is  very  small,  hardly  perceptible;   similar  in  sheep,  goats,  hogs, 
and  horses;  covered  by  the  peritoneum  in  the  form  of  a  cap;  mucous  membrane 
contains   noduli   lymphatici.     Dogs. — Roundish,   almost    entirely  covered   by   perito- 
neum ;  ligamentum  vesico-umbilicale  is  present. 

13.  Uterus.     Cattle. — Two     horns;     from     external     appearances     a     body    is 
apparently  present  but  actually  it  is  only   1-2  cm.  long;  mucous  membrane   forms 
cotyledons.     Sheep  and  Goats. — Horns  longer,  at  the  extremities  round  like  intes- 
tines; mucous  membrane  forms  very  small  cotyledons,  which  in  pregnancy  become 
cup-shaped   (uterine  cups)  ;  screw-shaped  folds  in  the  cervix.    'Hogs. — Horns  long, 
having  the  appearance  of  small  intestines ;  body  short,  5  cm.  long ;  the  cervix  proper 
is  absent;  mucous  membrane  on  the  corresponding  place  in  the   form   of  oblique 
rolls    (pads)  ;   mucous   membrane   in  thin    folds.     Horses. — Two    horns,   very   long 
body    (13-15   cm.),   prominent   cervix   with   close   folds   of  the   mucous    membrane 
arranged    lengthwise.     Dogs. — Long,    straight    horns,    short    body,    with    a    strong 
muscle  wall  for  a  cervix. 


Peculiarities  of  the  Meat  from  Various  Animals 


57 


14.  Ovaries.     Cattle. — Oval,   flat,   with   a   large  ovulation   surface.     Sheep   and 
Goats. — Roundish,  relatively  large.      Hogs. — Roundish,   nodular,    like   a   blackberry, 
more  or  less  enveloped  by  the  ovarian  sac.     Horses    -Almost  bean. shaped,  dense, 
entirely  covered   with   peritoneum,  up   to  the  notches    of    the    ovulation    grooves. 
Dogs. — Elongated,  has  no  notches,  enveloped  by  ovarian  sac  and  fat. 

15.  Mamma.     Cattle. — Four  quarters,  with  one  teat  each,  which  has  only  one 
opening ;  parenchyma  gray  to  whitish-red.     Sheep. — Two  halves,  each  has  one  small 
teat  with   one   opening.     Goats. — Two   large,   loose-hanging  halves,   each   having   a 
strong  teat  which  is  turned  forward,  and  has  one  opening.     Hogs. — The  mamrrae 
extends  from  the  vulva  to  the  sternum,  and  has  5-6  divisions  on  each  side,  each 
having  one  teat,  which   contains  one  or  two  openings;   the  parenchyma  is   richly 
intermixed  with  fat      Horses. — Two  elongated   round  halves,  each  having  one   flat 
triangular  teat,  which  has  two  openings ;  parenchyma,  whitish-red.    Dogs. — As  in  the 
hog,  on  each  side  there  are  4-5  divisions,  each  having  one  teat,  the  point  of  which 
is  pierced  by  8-12  openings,  like  a  sieve. 

Schneider  undertook  investigations  to  establish  the  absolute  and  rela- 
tive weight  of  the  heart,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  and  spleen  of  cattle,  the 
results  of  which  are  compiled  in  the  following  table : 


Relative  average  weight 


Absolute  average  weight 
in— 


a.  To    the     live      weight,  b.   To  the  dressed  weight 
of   the    animal  of  the   carcass 


£ 

i 

£ 

£ 

£ 

1 

02 

,5 

*3 

5 

1 

"3 

1 

OB 

1 

1 

"3 

1 

02 

•J3 

n 

1 

I 

Liver 

tff. 

leg. 

kff. 

kff. 

<* 

<£ 

4 

,    frr 

< 

* 

* 

i 

Heart  

7,607 

n  ,  947 

5,497 

4,787 

1,038 

1,023 

1,206 

1,156 

1,825 

Oor-r 

Spleen  
Kidnevs  

3,012 
1,155 

2,592 

,..x7s 

2,205 
0,789 
Ofii  / 

1,89 
0,744 

0,414 
0,159 

0,442 
0,152 

0,492 
0,171 

0,457 
0,163 

0,278 
0176 

0,285 
0  199 

0,356 
0  978 

0,334 
0  935 

Lungs 

Oqr 

1    O^fi 

1*326 

1  10° 

_,99 

Accordingly  the  absolute  weight  of  the  5  organs  averages  the  highest  in  steers, 
and  gradually  diminishes  from  the  steers  to  the  heifers.  The  relative  weight 
averages  the  smallest  in  the  steers  and  increases  from  the  steers  to  the  heifers  and 
cows. 

2,     Peculiarities  of  the  Meat  from  Various  Animals 

Meat  and  fat  of  all  animal  species  possess  certain  peculiarities  which 
are  more  or  less  influenced  by  breed,  sex,  age,  feeding,  and  condition  of 
health  of  the  respective  animals,  and  thus  they  fluctuate  inside  of  certain 
limits. 

A,     Beef 

Generally  beet  shows  a  saturated  red  color  with  a  slight  tint  of 
brown ;  it  has  a  firm  consistency  and  its  cut  surface  is  shiny.  The  odor  is 
characteristic  and  the  meat  is  generally  intermingled  with  fat.  The  con- 
nective tissue  is  white  and  soft.  After  chilling,  the  fat  shows  quite  a 


58      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

firm  consistence,  a  white  to  yellow  color,  and  a  peculiar  odor.  In  old 
cattle  the  fat  assumes  a  more  yellowish  color,  and  is  looser  in  consistency. 
Intensive  yellow  coloration  of  the  fat  may  also  be  met  in  pasture-fed  cat- 
tle. Rich  feeding  with  slop,  oil  cake,  acorn  cake,  or  cotton-seed  meal  pro- 
duces a  soft  loose,  yellow  fat.  The  bone  marrow  is  pure  white  to  reddish- 
yellow,  and  of  a  moderately  firm  consistency.  Fattened  steers  up  to  six 
years  old  have  bright,  dark  brick-red  meat,  which  is  moderately  coarse  in 
fiber,  and  which  as  a  result  of  the  intermixing  with  fat  has  a  marbled 
shiny  appearance  on  its  cut  surface.  The  fat  is  white  to  whitish-yellow 
and  firm. 

The  meat  and  fat  of  fattened  calves  and  fattened  young  cows  up  to  an 
age  of  seven  years  appear  similar  to  that  of  fattened  steers. 

The  meat  of  old  milch  cows  shows,  as  a  rule,  a  lighter  coloration  and 
coarser  fibers;  the  connective  tissue  stands  out  more  prominently  and  is 
close  in  texture  or  flabby,  and  contains  more  moisture.  The  fat  is  yellow, 
even  to  an  intensive  lemon-yellow  color,  and  appears  less  firm  and  inter- 
mixed in  smaller  amounts  with  the  meat  than  in  the  subcutaneous  tissues, 
mesentery,  peritoneum,  and  kidney  capsule.  The  odor  of  cow  meat  some- 
times reminds  one  of  the  odor  of  cow  milk  (Baranski). 

Young  cattle  possess  a  loose,  fine-fibered  meat  of  a  pale  to  light 
brick-red  color  only  slightly  intermingled  with  fat.  The  fat  is  white  and 
firm. 

In  older  bulls  the  meat  is  dark  copper-red  in  color,  coarse  fibered, 
tough,  poor  in  fat  and  dry.  In  large  masses,  and  especially  where  the 
muscles  are  covered  with  a  fascia,  the  meat  has  a  light-blueish  hue ;  the 
fat  is  white.  The  dried  surface  of  the  meat  of  older  bulls  appears  very 
dark  and  the  butchers  designate  it  as  "black."  The  meat  of  young  fat- 
tened bulls  differs  only  slightly  from  that  of  fattened  steers  with  the 
exception  of  showing  coarser  fibers. 

The  disagreeable  odor  of  the  bull  meat  which  was  observed  by  Goltz,  and 
which  reminds  one  of  the  effluvium  of  the  live  bull,  appears  relatively  quite  rare. 
The  subject  of  sexual  odor  of  meat  is  further  treated  in  Chap.  VII,  i. 

B,     Veal 

The  meat  of  calves  slaughtered  at  an  age  from  2-4  weeks  is  generally 
pale,  gray  to  grayish-red,  has  fine,  somewhat  tough  fibers,  and  is  not  inter- 
mixed with  fat.  The  consistency  is  from  moderately  firm  to  loose.  The 
odor  is  specific ;  in  calves  which  have  been  slaughtered  for  a  long  period 
(old  slaughter)  it  is  slightly  sour.  The  fat  is  reddish-yellow  to  white- 
yellow,  and  pure  white,  loose,  and  greasy.  The  bone  marrow  is  pink-red. 
Older  fattened  calves  show  a  darker,  redder,  tougher  meat,  which  in  the 
so-called  "double  loined  calves  or  sturgeon  calves,"  is  poor  in  fat  and  dry. 


Peculiarities  of  .the  Meat  from  Various  Animals  59 

Veal  in  general  contains  more  water  and  gelatin-forming  substances ;  on 
the  other  hand  it  is  poorer  in  muscle-albumen  than  beef. 

Concerning  the  meat  of  immature  calves  see  Chap.  VII. 

C.     Mutton 

Mutton  (sheep  meat)  distinguishes  itself  by  the  firm,  dense,  fine 
fibers  and  its  dark-red  color.  Its  consistence  is  moderately  firm.  The 
odor  is  specific,  slightly  ammoniacal,  sometimes  reminding  one  of  the 
odor  of  a  sheep  stable.  The  muscles  are  not  intermixed  with  fat.  In 
fattened  animals,  however,  there  are  rich  deposits  of  fat  between  the 
groups  of  muscles,  and  especially  in  the  subcutis  and  the  kidney  capsule. 
The  fat  (suet)  is  pure  white,  hard,  firm,  brittle,  and  has  no  odor.  The 
bone  marrow  is  firm  and  slightly  red. 

D,    Goat  Meat 

Goat  meat  is  in  general  paler  than  sheep  meat.  The  fat  and  bone 
marrow  simulate  that  of  sheep.  The  fat  is  chiefly  located  in  the  kidney 
capsules,  while  in  the  subcutis  it  is  only  present  in  small  quantities.  The 
muscles  also  contain  only  a  little  fat.  The  odor  of  the  meat  and  fat  is 
peculiarly  strong,  reminding  one  of  the  odor  of  the  living  goat,  and  it  is 
especially  disagreeable  and  repulsive  in  this  species.  (See  Chap.  VII,  i.) 

E.    Pork 

In  hogs,  age,  nutritive  condition,  and  the  particular  body  region  influ- 
ence considerably  the  color  of  the  meat,  which  appears  whitish-gray,  pale 
red,  gray-red  to  dark  red.  The  fibers  are  fine,  the  consistence  soft  to 
moderately  firm,  and  the  odor  indefinable.  It  is  considerably  intermixed 
with  fat,  which  also  envelopes  the  larger  groups  of  muscles.  The  fat  is 
pure  white,  finely  granular,  and  soft.  The  marrow  of  the  bone  is  soft 
and  pink-red. 

In  boiling  pork  it  becomes  whitish-gray  and  is  then  much  lighter  than 
the  meat  of  all  other  food  animals. 

In  fattening  with  corn  the  fat  takes  up  a  yellowish  color,  and  in  feeding  fish  a 
gray  color.  Feeding  with  acorns  procures  a  more  oily  fat.  Feeding  fish  gives  the 
fat  a  fishy  odor. 

In  older  sows  kept  for  breeding,  and  stags  (boars  castrated  after  they  have 
matured),  the  meat  is  dark  red,  poor  in  fat,  and  firm. 

The  odor  of  the  meat  from  boars  and  cryptorchids  is  more  or  less  repulsive, 
reminding  one  of  urine.  It  is  frequently  perceptible  on  the  fresh  meat,  but  some- 
times it  appears  only  in  cooking  or  roasting  it.  (See  Chap.  VII,  i.) 

F,     Horse  Meat 

Horse  meat  is  conspicuous  through  its  dark-red  or  even  brown  color. 
When  exposed  to  the  air  it  has  a  blueish  luster,  and  even  becomes  blackish- 
red  to  black.  The  fibers  are  very  fine,  the  consistency  firm,  and  fascias  are 


60      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

very  prominent.  There  is  no  intermixing  of  fat  in  the  muscles.  The  odor 
is  peculiar,  sweet,  and  almost  repulsive.  Fat  is  soft,  oily,  and  light  gold 
to  dark  yellow  in  color,  but  in  well-nourished  horses  it  is  whiter  and 
firmer.  Bone  marrow  is  wax  yellow,  greasy,  and  soft,  but  becomes  stif- 
fened in  the  air. 

G,     Dog  Meat 

Generally  the  meat  of  dogs  is  dark  red,  firm  fibered,  and  only 
slightly  intermixed  with  fat,  which  occurs  chiefly  between  the  groups  of 
the  muscles  and  in  the  subcutis.  The  consistence  of  the  meat  is  soft  and 
smeary ;  the  odor  is  disagreeably  repulsive.  The  color  of  the  fat  is  white 
to  white-gray,  and  its  consistence  oily  and  greasy. 

H,    Rabbit  Meat 

The  meat  of  rabbits  distinguishes  itself  through  its  pale-red,  gray- 
red,  and  gray  color.  The  fibers  are  fine ;  the  fat  in  the  muscles  is  absent, 
and  the  consistence  loose.  The  fat  is  whitish-yellow,  and  is  principally 
confined  to  the  body  cavities. 

],     Poultry  Meat 

The  muscular  tissues  of  fowls  are  firm,  fine-fibered,  and  without  inter- 
mixing with  fat.  The  color  of  the  preponderating  meat  is  pale ;  however, 
there  are  also  red  muscles.  Generally  the  meat  of  chickens,  capons,  and 
turkeys  is  called  white,  while  that  of  geese,  ducks,  and  pigeons  is  consid- 
ered as  dark.  The  consistency  is  principally  firm  and  the  alkalinity  sub- 
sists after  slaughter  for  a  long  time  (Postolka  and  Toscano).  Odor  and 
taste  vary  in  accordance  with  the  species  and  feeding.  Fat  content  of  the 
muscles  proper  is  very  small,  with  the  exception  of  the  fattened  fowl. 
The  fat  is  very  variable  in  its  consistency,  color,  and  odor;  generally, 
however,  it  is  soft  and  oily.  In  chemical  composition  (page  40),  the  meat 
of  fowls  contains  little  lime-forming  substances,  but  considerable  albumen. 

K,     Meat  of  Game 

In  general  the  characteristics  of  the  flesh  of  fowls  may  be  applied  to 
the  meat  of  game,  but  the  color  is  always  darker,  shading  from  red  to 
brownish-red.  Odor  and  taste  of  the  meat  are  peculiar  to  each  kind  of 
game.  Meat  of  animals  which  were  exhausted  in  chasing  before  death, 
or  which  were  injured  by  shot  and  which  had  to  endure  a  long  agony,  is 
said  to  taste  bitter;  moreover,  the  greater  contents  of  blood  in  the  meat 
of  game  should  be  considered.  This,  however,  apparently  does  not  influ- 
ence its  keeping  qualities  to  any  extent,  although  such  is  the  case  with 
the  meat  of  other  animals. 


Peculiarities  of  the  Meat  from  Various  Animals  61 

Regarding  its  chemical  composition  (page  40),  what  was  said 
about  the  meat  of  fowls  applies  to  the  meat  of  game. 

L     Fish  Meat 

The  color  of  fish  meat  is  white ;  only  few  fish  have  red  meat  (salmon, 
trout).  The  structure  is  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  the  entire  muscular  mass 
of  each  side  of  the  fish  consists  of  a  single  muscle  plate  (side  muscle), 
which  is  divided  by  a  long  furrow  into  a  dorsal  and  ventral  part.  Each 
side  muscle  consists  of  a  large  number  of  muscle  plates  (myomeren), 
which  are  separated  by  thin,  connective  tissue  membranes,  and  which  easily 
fall  apart,  especially  in  boiling.  Nothing  can  be  said  of  importance 
regarding  the  odor  and  taste,  which  principally  depend  on  the  consist- 
ency of  the  fat.  The  latter,  however,  is  principally  influenced  by  the  food 
of  the  fish.  Fish  of  prey  have  a  better  tasting  meat  than  those  which  seek 
their  food  in  the  mud.  In  the  same  way  the  season,  especially  the  spawn- 
ing period,  influences  the  taste  of  the  meat  not  inconsiderably.  According 
to  the  examination  of  Lichtenfelt  regarding  the  periodical  changes  of  the 
consistence  of  meat  of  various  kinds  of  fish,  he  found  that  during  the 
spawning  period  the  albumen  diminishes  in  the  side  body  muscles  in 
female  animals  from  17.5  per  cent,  to  13.3  per  cent.,  and  in  males  from 
17.9-19.0  per  cent,  to  13-14.3  per  cent.  In  a  still  larger  degree  the  fat 
contents  of  the  muscles  decrease.  The  fat,  when  present,  is  finely  dis- 
tributed in  the  meat. 

In  chemical  composition  the  fish  meat  contains  a  larger  quantity  of 
water  than  that  of  mammals.  This,  however,  is  considerably  reduced  in 
fish  which  are  rich  in  fat  to  the  advantage  of  the  fat  contents  (eel  meat 
55-60  per  cent,  of  water).  Of  the  nitrogenous  constituents,  the  extractive 
and  glue-forming  substances  amount  to  one-third.  The  supposition  that 
fish  meat  is  not  as  satiating  as  other  meat  appears  to  be  contradicted  by 
Rosenfeld's  investigations. 

Regarding  the  poisonous  effects  of  some  fish,  see  Chap.  IX,  2. 

M,     Meat  of  Crustaceans  and  Mollusks 

In  these  animals  the  muscles  are  white  or  white-gray.  Consistence, 
odor,  and  taste  vary  greatly.  There  is  a  remarkably  slight  amount  of  fat 
present.  Regarding  the  chemical  composition  see  page  41. 

N,     Meat  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians 

The  meat  of  frogs  and  turtles  is  always  of  a  pale  color,  usually  white, 
yellowish-gray,  yellowish  or  yellowish-red.  Fat  content  is  limited  and 
slight.  Regarding  the  chemical  composition,  see  page  41. 


62      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 


3,     Fraudulent  Substitutions  of  Meat  and  Their  Recognition 

In  the  handling  of  meats  and  the  preparation  of  meat- food  products 
attempts  are  sometimes  made  to  substitute  meat  of  a  lesser  quality  for  that 
of  higher  quality.  To  prove  these  fraudulent  actions  frequently  causes 
the  expert  considerable  trouble,  and  not  infrequently  is  this  altogether 
impossible,  especially  in  prepared  meat-food  products. 

If  there  are  bones  present  in  the  suspected  meat,  they  should  be  taken 
for  comparison,  and  further  all  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  meat  and 
fat,  which  have  been  already  described  for  the  individual  species  of  ani- 
mals, should  be  considered.  Relative  to  the  manifold  differences  in  the 
skeleton,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  text-books  on  comparative  anat- 
omy of  the  domestic  animals.  For  distinguishing  the  various  kinds  of 
meats  from  a  scientific  standpoint  the 

Biological  Method 

deserves  the  greatest  consideration.  The  method  is  based  on  the  forma- 
tion of  precipitins  in  the  blood  serums  of  animals  (for  instance,  rabbits), 
which  received  for  a  certain  time  intraperitoneally,  blood  serum  of  meat 
juice  of  other  animals  (for  instance,  of  horses).  If,  then,  such  blood 
serum  (of  rabbits)  is  added  to  the  blood  serum  or  meat- juice  of  the 
animal  (in  this  case  to  horse  blood  serum),  of  which  the  blood  serum 
served  in  the  preparatory  treatment  of  the  animal  (rabbit),  a  cloudiness 
will  develop  in  the  latter  which  results  in  a  precipitate.  This  reaction 
appears  only  with  the  blood  serum  or  meat- juice  of  the  same  kind  of  ani- 
mal which  was  employed  for  the  preparatory  treatment,  and  from  which 
the  serum  which  supplies  the  precipitating  serum  originated.  The  reaction 
is,  therefore,  a  specific  precipitation. 

The  method  was  first  employed  by  Uhlenhuth,  Wassermann,  and 
Schiitze  for  the  recognition  of  human  blood,  and  later  was  improved  by 
Jess,  Uhlenhuth,  Missner  and  Herbst,  Notel,  v.  Rigler,  Groning,  Borsch- 
mann,  and  others  for  use  on  meats.  The  biological  method  can  not  only 
be  applied  on  fresh  meat,  but  also  on  dried,  pickled,  and  salt  meat  as  well 
as  for  distinguishing  meat  mixtures,  bones,  and  viscera.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  method  does  not  prove  satisfactory  for  the  differentiation  of 
cooked  meats.  For  distinguishing  horse  meat  from  beef  the  biological 
method  is  successful,  but  whether  the  application  of  the  same  will  prove 
unobjectionable  on  the  meat  of  other  animals,  which  zoologically  are  in 
closer  relation,  is  yet  to  be  determined.  The  production  of  the  sera  and 
meat  extracts  and  the  procedure  of  the  reaction  are  accompanied  by 
various  difficulties  and  require  certain  precautions.  Therefore  the  appli- 
cation of  the  biological  method  presumes  great  skill,  and  is  accordingly 


Fraudulent  Substitutions  of  Meat  and  Their  Recognition  63 

adapted  only  for  scientific  institutions  and  for  larger  meat-inspection 
bureaus  conducted  by  veterinarians.  Owing  to  the  technique  and  the 
numerous  details  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  test,  the  reader 
must  be  referred  to  the  original  works  for  a  full  description.  Whether 
Neisser-Sachs'  so-called  "diverting  method"  may  also  be  utilized  in  the 
differentiation  of  the  various  kinds  of  meat  is  yet  to  be  determined. 

Other  differentiating  indications  between  the  species  which  occa- 
sionally may  appear  for  comparison  are  described  in  the  following : 

A.     Sheep  and  Goat 

In  comparing  the  whole  slaughtered  carcass,  the  goat  appears  to  have 
longer  bones,  especially  in  the  flank  than  the  sheep.  The  latter  has  a 
round  back  and  a  fleshy  rounded  croup,  while  the  goat  manifests  a  sharp 
back  and  a  sloping  croup.  Goats  usually  have  a  shorter  tail  (12  caudal 
vertebrae)  than  sheep  (18-24  caudal  vertebrae);  however,  they  are  also 
short-tailed  (12-16  caudal  vertebrae)  and  tailless  breeds  of  sheep  (3  cau- 
dal vertebrae).  The  thorax  of  the  goat  is  flat,  that  of  the  sheep  is  barrel- 
shaped.  On  the  somewhat  sticky  surface  of  the  slaughtered  goat  fre- 
quently goat  hairs  are  found  adhering;  the  skin  muscles  of  goats  are 
darker  than  those  of  the  sheep.  The  subcutis  of  goats  contains  less  fat 
and  also  the  muscles  are  not  enveloped  in  fat  to  the  extent  they  are  in 
sheep.  The  meat  has  a  characteristic  odor,  especially  pronounced 
in  males.  Of  the  skeleton  peculiarities  it  should  be  mentioned  that 
all  bones  of  the  goats  in  general  have  a  more  slender  form  than 
sheep  bones.  In  the  skull  of  the  goat  the  external  lachrymal  notch  is 
absent  while  it  is  present  in  sheep.  The  spinal  processes  of  the  cervical 
vertebrae  are,  according  to  Biitzler,  long,  pointed,  and  sharp-edged  in  the 
goat,  while  in  the  sheep  they  are  broad  and  dull.  Sacral  vertebrae  are  at 
least  4  in  the  goat,  never  3,  as  occasionally  occurs  in  sheep.  The  lateral 
sacral  borders  of  the  goat  are  thin  and  sharp ;  in  the  sheep  they  are  thick- 
ened in  the  form  of  rolls.  Pelvic  opening  is  considerably  smaller  in  the 
goat  than  in  the  sheep.  The  scapula  in  the  sheep  is  broad  and  short ;  the 
well-developed  spine  has  in  the  center  a  round  thickening  which  is  bent 
backwards  in  a  bow.  In  goats  the  scapular  spine  is  flat  and  straight,  the 
neck  of  the  scapula  is  distinctly  outlined.  The  tibia  in  the  sheep  is  strongly 
turned  spirally,  and  its  posterior  surface  is  concave.  The  bones  of  the 
goat  are,  according  to  Lohoff,  harder  and  more  brittle  than  the  bones  of 
the  sheep. 

B,     Sheep,  Goat,  and  Deer 

The  conformation  of  the  bones  in  deer  is  always  more  slender  and 
neater  than  in  the  sheep  or  goat.  The  cervical  vertebrae  of  deer  are  longer 
than  in  sheep  and  goat  compared  to  the  size  of  the  animals.  The  spinal 
processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of  the  deer  are  turned  forward,  beginning 


64      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

at  the  third;  on  the  lumbar  vertebrae  they  are  elongated  forward  in  the 
form  of  a  sharp  hook,  which  in  sheep  is  considerably  smaller.  In  the  scap- 
ula of  the  deer  the  acromion  is  elongated  into  a  sharp  point,  which  is 
directed  ventrally ;  it  is  absent  in  the  sheep  and  goat,  or  is  considerably 
smaller.  The  radio-ulnar  arch  which  forms  an  oval  opening  in  the  sheep 
and  goat  is  very  long  in  the  deer.  The  lachrymal  bone  in  the  deer  is  also 
deeply  grooved,  but  its  surface  appears  incomplete.  In  the  deer  the  sub- 
cutaneous layer  of  fat  is  not  as  well  developed  as  in  the  sheep ;  the  meat  is 
poor  in  fat  and  possesses  the  odor  of  venison,  which  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  odor  of  sheep. 

Smith  pointed  out  the  difference  between  the  goat  hair  and  deer  hair.  In  the 
first  the  cortical  substance  in  the  microscopical  picture  is  as  broad  as  the  marrow 
substance,  while  deer  hair  is  characterized  by  the  remarkable  development  of  the 
marrow  substance.  The  cortical  layer  in  deer  hair  is  almost  unrecognizable,  so  that 
the  hair  appears  to  be  a  cylinder  entirely  made  up  of  polyhedral  cells.  The  hair  of 
elk  and  chamois  has  also  a  similar  structure. 

According  to  the  description  of  Stadies,  the  kidneys  of  deer  can  only  be  posi- 
tively distinguished  from  those  of  the  sheep  with  the  aid  of  an  anatomical  fluid 
injected  into  the  pelvis  of  the  kidneys.  The  pelvis  of  the  kidney  is  injected  with  a 
solution  of  celloidin,  rosin,  and  turpentine  in  alcoholic  ether;  after  the  stiffening  of 
the  solution  the  kidney  is  placed  into  hydrochloric  acid,  which  in  a  few  days  com- 
pletely destroys  the  kidney  substance.  The  cast  from  the  pelvis  of  the  deer  kidney 
is  small  and  oval  without  any  bulgings,  while  that  from  the  pelvis  of  sheep  shows 
a  long  stretched  runner. 

C,    Hog  and  Dog 

Besides  the  manifold  differences  in  the  skeleton,  which  are  described 
in  the  anatomies,  it  may  be  also  noted  tnat  the  color  of  dog  meat  is  much 
darker  than  hog  meat,  and  this  difference  can  be  especially  observed  in  the 
cooked  flesh.  (See  page  59.) 

The  muscles  of  dog  meat  are  more  smeary  and  the  fat  is  more  oily 
than  in  the  hog;  the  odor  is  entirely  different. 

D,     Rabbit  (Hare)  and  Cat 

The  following  differences  in  the  skeleton  are  especially  to  be  men- 
tioned :  The  lateral  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  which  are  directed 
forward  terminate  in  the  rabbit  (Fig.  34)  in  two  extensions,  of  which  one 
is  directed  forward  the  other  backward ;  in  the  cat  they  terminate  in  a 
point.  The  body  of  the  first  three  lumbar  vertebrae  in  the  rabbit  contains 
thorn-shaped  ventral  processes  (Fig.  34  a).  The  ribs  of  the  rabbit  are  flat 
and  broad ;  those  of  the  cat  are  rounded.  On  the  scapula  of  the  rabbit  the 
acromion  turns  around  posteriorly  and  terminates  in  a  long  point,  which 
is  directed  backward  (Fig.  37).  Radius  and  ulna  are  completely  sepa- 
rated in  the  cat  (Fig.  35)  ;  in  the  Leporides  they  are  united  (Fig.  36).  On 
the  humerus  of  the  cat  is  an  elongated  fissure  over  the  median  condyle 


Fraudulent  Substitutes  of  Meat  and  Their  Recognition 


of  the  distal  end  (Fig.  39).  The  femur  of  the  rabbit  (Fig.  41)  contains 
below  the  trochanter  major,  a  specially  strong  smaller  trochanter,  which 
is  absent  in  the  cat  (Fig.  42).  Tibia  and  fibula  are  complete  in  the  cat 
(Fig.  43)  ;  in  the  rabbit  (Fig.  44),  they  are  only  separated  in  the  upper 
half. 

The  whole  carcass  of  the  cat  can  be  immediately  recognized  by  its 
head,  penis  bone,  and  the  tail,  and  for  these  reasons,  if  offered  for  sale, 


Fig.  37 


Fig.  34 


Fig.  35 


Fig.  36 


Fig.  38 


Fig.  34.  Lumbar  vertebrae,  a  ventral  spinal  processes. 
Fig.  35.  Right  forearm  of  the  cat,  inside  view. 
Fig.  36.  Right   forearm  of  the   rabbit,   inside  view. 
Fig.  37.  Right  scapula  of  the  rabbit. 
Fig.  38.  Right   scapula   of  the   cat. 

these  parts  are  always  removed  on  the  slaughtered  animal.  Rabbits  gen- 
erally have  the  shot  wounds,  but  these  are  naturally  absent  in  the  slaught- 
ered domesticated  rabbits.  The  meat  of  the  cat  is  paler  than  rabbit  meat ; 
the  fat  of  the  cat  appears  whitish  in  contrast  to  rabbit  fat,  which  is  honey- 
yellow. 

E     Hare  and  Rabbit 

The  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  hare  are,  according  to  Lesbre,  shorter  than  those 
of  the  rabbit.  The  spinal  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  in  the  rabbit  are  slightly 
turned  backward,  and  they  do  not  have  the  hook-shaped  extensions  which  are 

6  /> v3^*^ 

/  OF  THE 


66      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 


present  in  the  hare.  The  well-marked  bifurcations  of  the  ends  of  the  lateral  proc- 
esses of  the  lumbar  vertebrae  in  the  hare  is  only  perceptible  on  the  first  lumbar 
vertebra  of  the  rabbit.  The  sacrum  of  the  hare  consists  of  four  united  vertebrae; 
the  spinal  processes  are  all  united.  In  the  rabbit  the  sacrum  is  narrower  than  in 
the  hare.  The  ribs  and  scapula  are  longer  in  the  hare  than  in  the  rabbit.  The 
spine  of  the  scapula  lays  considerably  nearer  to  the  anterior  border  of  this  bone 
in  the  rabbit.  The  acromion  of  the  hare  terminates  suddenly  at  the  attachment  of 
the  processus  hamatus,  while  in  the  rabbit  it  continues  for  3-5  mm.  in  a  long  point 
(Fig.  37).  Upper  arm  is  larger  in  the  hare  than  in  the  rabbit.  The  radius  is  longer 
in  the  hare  than  in  the  rabbit;  the  middle  part  is  cylindrical  in  the  latter,  while  in 


Fig.  39 


Fig.  40 


Fig.  41 


Fig.  42 


Fig.  43 


Fig.  44 


Fig.  39.  Right  humerus  of  the  cat,  front  view. 

Fig.  40.  Right  humerus  of  the  rabbit. 

Fig.  41.  Right  femur  of  the  rabbit,  front  and  inside  view. 

Fig.  42.  Right  femur  of  the  cat. 

Fig.  43.  Right  tibia  and  fibula  of  the  cat,  front  view. 

Fig.  44.  Right  tibia  and  fibula  of  the  rabbit. 

the  former  it  is  considerably  flattened.  The  ulna  of  the  hare  becomes  gradually 
thinner  at  the  distal  end,  and  proceeds  almost  entirely  behind  the  volar  surface  of 
the  radius;  in  the  rabbit,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  developed  in  the  entire  length, 
and  lays  almost  completely  on  the  lateral  surface  of  the  radius.  With  the  hind  legs 
there  is  no  perceptible  difference  noticeable. 

F,     Cattle  and  Horses 

Regarding  the  entire  quarters,  in  the  horse  the  length  of  the  extremi- 
ties and  that  of  the  thorax  appear  in  marked  contrast  to  that  of  cattle, 
while  in  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pelvis  is  longer  than  that  of  the 


Fraudulent  Substitutions  of  Meat  and  Their  Recognition  67 

horse.  The  characteristics  of  the  meat  were  discussed  on  page  57.  The 
numerous  osteological  differences  must  be  left  unconsidered.  Seldom  is 
it  necessary  to  pass  an  opinion  on  large  pieces  of  meat ;  it  is  much  more 
frequently  necessary  to  determine  the  presence  of  horse  meat  which  has 
been  prepared  for  food,  especially  in  sausage.  Until  a  few  years  ago  it 
was  impossible  to  prove  this  with  any  degree  of  positiveness.  However, 
the  work  of  Niebel  can  be  credited  with  giving  a  scientific  method  for  an 
accurate  test  for  horse  meat.  Niebel  constantly  found  in  horse  meat  con- 
siderable quantities  of  glycogen  (0.373-1.072  per  cent.),  the  smallest 
amount  of  which  surpasses  the  quantity  found  in  the  meat  of  other 
animals.1 

For  the  demonstration  of  glycogen  Niebel  employed  Briicke's  method  with 
Kiilz's  modification,  which  is  also  prescribed  with  some  changes  by  the  regulations 
of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  for  the  horse-meat  test. 

It  is  certain  that  superior  to  the  Briicke-Kiilz's  method  are  those  of  Pfliigler  and 
Pfliigler-Nerking,  by  which  Martin  has  proved  that  the  results  gave  from  22-25 
per  cent,  higher  values  than  the  former.  Besides  it  was  found  by  Frassi,  Hefel- 
mann,  and  Mautz  and  others,  that  the  glycogen  content  of  the  muscles  of  the  horse 
varies  considerably  in  the  various  parts  of  the  body ;  the  smallest  quantity  of  gly- 
cogen was  always  found  in  the  muscles  of  mastication  (0.047-0.24  per  cent.)  while 
in.  the  back  and  thigh  muscles  it  was  found  as  high  as  10.8  per  cent,  (in  the  dry 
substance  free  from  fat). 

Further  Niebel  found  that  the  glycogen  in  the  horse  is  converted 
after  a  certain  tame  into  grape  sugar.  In  such  cases  he  established  the 
contents  of  the  sugar  in  horse  meat  by  a  special  method  with  the  aid  of 
Fehling's  solution.  In  this  connection  it  must  also  be  remembered  that 
meat,  and  especially  meat  products,  contains  reductive  substances,  i.  e., 
creatinin;  further  that  the  quantity  of  carbohydrates  is  increased  in  the 
sausage  by  the  addition  of  spices,  also  by  starch  flour  which  is  sometimes 
deliberately  added  to  the  substance  of  certain  sausages.  If  there  is  no 
addition  of  carbohydrates  made,  and  it  is  determined  by  Niebel's  compara- 
tive test  that  the  meat  or  sausage  contains  at  least  I  per  cent,  carbohydrate, 
calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  fat2  free  dry  substance,  then  it  is  evident 
that  the  product  contains  horse  meat.  In  the  horse-meat  sausages  exam- 
ined, the  confirmed  quantity  of  carbohydrates  exceeded  1 1  times  the  maxi- 
mum content  of  carbohydrates  of  ordinary  sausage. 

It  is  known  that  the  meat  of  dogs,  cats,  fetuses,  and  starved  calves 
contains  also  a  large  amount  of  glycogen.  The  first  two  species  of  ani- 
mals do  not  come  under  consideration  in  connection  with  falsification  of 


1  This  statement  of  Niebel  cannot  be  sustained,  according  to  Rusche. 

2  The   quantitative   glycogen   analysis   in   connection   with    Niebel's    determining 
method  is  exact,  according  to  Rusche. 


68       Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues  etc. 

sausage,  etc.,  and  with  the  addition  of  larger  quantities  of  fetal  or  starved 
calf  meat  the  sausages  have  not  the  characteristic  brown-red  color  which 
is  given  to  them  by  the  presence  of  horse  meat.  Niebel  attaches  so  much 
importance  to  the  brown-red  color  that  he  considers  the  presence  of  horse 
meat  established  if,  besides  the  determination  of  glycogen,  the  brown-red 
color  of  the  material  is  present.  While  the  observations  of  Niebel  have 
been  confirmed  by  other  investigators,  nevertheless  it  has  been  established 
by  Nerking,  Pfliiger,  and  Rusche,  that  the  meat  of  well-nourished  cattle 
may  contain  in  the  fresh  state  the  same  quantity  of  glycogen  as  horse  meat, 
and  Pfliiger  also  determined  that  meat  from  horses  in  poor  nutritive  con- 
dition may  occasionally  be  free  from  glycogen  or  have  only  traces  of  it. 
In  consequence  of  these  findings  and  also  on  account  of  the  high  content 
of  glycogen  in  fetuses  and  immature  calves,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a 
supplemental  method  besides  the  glycogen  test  for  the  positive  determina- 
tion of  the  presence  of  horse  meat,  and  for  these  reasons  only  the  biological 
test  can  be  accepted  as  positive. 

For  the  quick  determination  of  horse  meat  in  a  meat  product,  Brauti- 
gam  and  Edelmann  successfully  tried  and  adopted  a  method  for  diagnostic 
purposes,  which  is  based  on  Niebel's  investigations  and  which  depends  on 
the  characteristic  color  reaction  of  glycogen  with  iodine  as  it  was  first 
described  by  Claude  Bernard.  The  method  is  as  follows : 

1.  A  small  quantity  of  the   meat    (50  g.)    to  be   examined   is  finely   cut  and 
boiled  in  four  times  its  volume  of  water  for  one  hour,  and  the  resulting  bouillon  is 
treated  as  described  in  4  and  5. 

2.  To  this   mass   caustic   potash   dissolved   in   the   same   quantity   of   water   is 
added  (3  per  cent,  of  the  original  quantity  of  meat)  and  this  is  further  heated  over 
a  water  bath  until  the  muscle  fibers  fall  apart. 

3.  The  cooked  mass  is  then  boiled  down  to  the  weight  of  the  original  quantity 
of  meat  and  filtered. 

4.  After   complete   cooling  this   meat   solution    is   carefully   mixed   with   equal 
parts  of  diluted  nitric  acid,  in  order  to  precipitate  most  of  the  albuminoids  and  for 
decolorization  and  it  is  then  again  filtered. 

5.  This  filtrate  (or  the  bouillon,  which  was  obtained  under  i,  and  which  was 
also  acidulated  with  dilute  nitric  acid  and  filtered)  is  then  treated  with  iodine  water, 
which  is  carefully  poured  on  the  side  of  the  test  tube  to  the  filtrate.     In  this  way 
at  the  contact  of  the  solutions  in  the  presence  of  horse  meat,  a  burgundy  red  zone 
forms,  the  width  and  intensity  of  which  depend  on  the  quantity  of  horse  meat  in 
the  examined  sample — that  is,  on  the  quantity  of  glycogen  in  the  meat. 

This  method  is  successful  in  proving  qualitatively  the  presence  of 
glycogen  even  in  mixtures  which  contained  only  5  per  cent,  of  horse  meat. 
The  color  reaction  must  be  distinct,  and  in  order  to  avoid  any  possible 
errors  it  should  be  carried  out  by  daylight.  The  principal  requirement  in 
the  execution  of  this  test  is  the  absence  of  starch,  and  for  this  reason  a 
small  quantity  of  the  meat  should  be  first  tested  by  boiling  and  the  addi- 


Fraudulent  Substitutions  of  Meat  and  Their  Recognition          69 

tion  of  iodine  or  Lugol's  solution.     Should    the    sample    contain    starch, 
then  the  following  modification  is  to  be  applied : 

1.  The  glycogen   which  might  be  present  in  the   meat  product  is   exclusively 
extracted  by  boiling  the  sample  of  meat  to  which  the  necessary  quantity  of  water 
has  been  added  in  a  water  bath,  which  requires  several  hours. 

2.  The  filtered  extract  is  very  carefully  reduced  on  the  water  bath  to  one-third 
of  the  original  quantity  of  the  meat. 

3.  To  this  concentrated  juice  two  or  three  times  its  volume  of  concentrated 
acetic   acid   is   added,   which  precipitates   the    starch    (frequently  only   after   a    few 
hours). 

It  has  not  yet  been  determined  whether  the  method  recommended  by  Baur  and 
Polenske  is  suitable  for  the  separation  of  starch  and  glycogen  through  the  precipi- 
tation with  a  saturated  ammonium  sulphate  solution. 

4.  The  liquid  containing  the  precipitate    is  carefully  filtered  through  a  double 
or  three-folded  filter,  and  to  a  small  quantity  of  the  filtrate  iodine  is  added  for  the 
starch  test.    Should  some  starch  still  be  present,  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  must 
be  repeated  and  the  material  again  filtered. 

5.  To  the  solution  which  does  not  contain  any  starch,  iodine  water  may  be 
directly  but  carefully  poured   for  the  glycogen  test.     But  as   the  extract  becomes 
diluted  two  or  three  times  its  volume  through  the  addition  of  acetic  acid,  it  becomes 
advisable  in  case  of  negative  results : 

6.  To  precipitate  the  presumptive  glycogen  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  to  ten  or 
twelve  times  its  volume. 

7.  The   cloudy   alcoholic    solution   is    filtered   through    as     small    a     filter    as 
possible. 

8.  The  traces  of  glycogen,   which  might  have  been  retained  in  the  filter,  are 
dissolved  with  a  few  drops  of  hot  water,  and  with  water  acidified  with  acetic  acid 
and  the  solution  which  thus  passes  through  is  then  carefully  tested  with  iodine  water 
for  glycogen. 

The  entire  procedure  of  this  examination  of  products  containing 
starch  must  be  carefully  executed  in  every  part,  owing  to  the  danger  of 
the  formation  of  dextrin,  which  might  be  mistaken  for  glycogen.  A 
chemical  separation  of  dextrin  from  glycogen  has  not  yet  been  accom- 
plished. Further  information  must  be  obtained  from  the  original  works 
on  the  subject. 

It  should  be  especially  emphasized  that  the  method  of  Edelmann- 
Brautigam  should  be  preferably  used  for  diagnostic  purposes.  In  general 
work  this  method  should  be  applied  for  the  demonstration  of  the  presence 
of  glycogen  in  the  suspected  meat  product,  and,  if  necessary,  through  a 
quantitative  chemical  analysis,  the  quantity  of  the  glycogen  should  be 
determined  in  the  product. 

The  published  modification  of  Edelmann-Brautigam's  method  by 
Courtroy  and  Coreman  cannot  be  recommended. 

Bastien  advises  the  following  simplification  of  Edelmann-Brautigam's 
method  for  determining  glycogen  in  sausages : 

20  g.  of  the  sausage  to  be  examined  is  chopped  and  boiled  for  about  one  hour, 
until  the  quantity  is  reduced  to  30  c.  c.  After  cooling,  it  is  filtered  and  to  10  c.  c.  of 


70      Chap.  II.     Morphology  and  Chemistry  of  Principal  Tissues,  etc. 

the  filtrate  2-5  drops  of  iodine  water  is  added.  A  red-violet  coloration  proves  the 
presence  of  horse  meat,  even  if  the  sausage  contains  only  5  per  cent,  of  such  meat. 
The  coloration  disappears  quickly,  therefore  the  reagent  must  be  added  carefully  in 
order  not  to  obtain  a  red-brown  coloration. 

Should  the  sample  of  sausage  contain  starch  also,  the  above-mentioned  boiled 
mass  is  first  decanted,  and  according  to  the  quantity  of  starch  present,  I  or  2  volumes 
of  acetic  acid  is  added.  After  5  minutes  it  is  filtered,  and  10  c.  c.  of  the  filtrate  is 
taken  for  the  same  iodine  test  as  described  above. 

Lebbien  also  recommends  a  new  method  for  the  quantitative  determination  of 
glycogen,  which,  however,  must  first  be  proved  satisfactorily  in  practice.  This 
method  is  principally  adapted  for  experts  in  chemistry. 

Hasterlik  aimed  to  utilize  the  large  quantity  of  iodine  which  the  horse  fat 
contains  for  a  distinguishing  sign.  The  latter  amounts  in  the  intermuscular  horse 
fat  to  79.71-85.87,  compared  with  49.74-58.45  in  beef  fat.  In  mixtures  of  these  fats 
or  with  lard  the  quantity  of  the  iodine  changes  to  such  an  extent  that  the  method 
cannot  claim  an  absolute  reliability.  The  method  itself  is  recently  said  to  have 
given  good  satisfaction  with  meats  prepared  by  cooking. 

Bremer  does  not  accept  such  a  high  content  of  iodine  in  the  fat  of  the  horse 
as  Hasterlik,  and  advises  Niebel's  method  as  a  supplementary  examination. 

Nussberger  recommends  the  Zeiss  refractometer  for  the  determination  of  horse 
fat  (Chap.  IX). 

This  method  is  also  prescribed  by  the  regulations  of  the  imperial  meat-inspec- 
tion law. 

All  these  methods  should  be  submitted  at  first  to  expert  chemists. 

G,    Cattle  and  Deer 

The  muscle  fibers  of  beef  are  coarser  than  those  of  deer,  and  the  bones  are 
also  stronger.  Deer  meat  is  darker  than  beef,  and  is  not  so  mottled  with  fat.  The 
fat  of  deer  appears  much  like  mutton  fat;  it  is  harder  and  more  brittle  than 
beef  fat. 

H,  Cattle  and  Buffalo 

Generally  the  fresh  buffalo  is  darker  (more  reddish-brown)  ;  the  fibers 
are  coarser  and  looser  in  the  structure  than  beef.  The  odor  of  buffalo  meat  and 
fat  resembles  that  of  musk,  and  if  boiled  in  strong  acidified  (sulphuric  acid)  water 
it  develops  a  disagreeable  odor  similar  to  that  of  cattle  manure  (Puntigam  and 
Halusa).  The  cutaneous  shoulder  muscle  of  buffalo  is  only  3-5  fingers  broad,  while 
that  of  cattle  is  considerably  broader.  The  fat  of  buffalo  is  strikingly  white,  and 
is  dryer  and  less  sticky  than  in  cattle.  The  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the 
buffalo  is  generally  finer  and  the  bones  are  more  brittle.  The  pubic  symphysis 
of  the  buffalo  appears  strikingly  plain. 


Ill,   The  Production,  Preparation,  and 
Conservation  of  Meat 

In  the  utilization  of  meat  for  human  food  it  undergoes  various  proc- 
esses or  preparations,  and  should  it  not  be  consumed  within  a  certain 
period  it  must  be  conserved  in  order  that  it  may  be  kept. 

1.     Chopped  Meat 

The  production  of  chopped  meat  -by  means  of  cutting  the  flesh  with 
a  knife,  cleaver,  rocking-knife,  or  meat-grinder  is  the  simplest  method  of 
preparation.  For  this  purpose  beef  and  pork  are  principally  used,  but 
veal  is  likewise  utilized  to  a  small  extent.  The  short  tendonous  meat  of 
the  head,  leg,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  which  does  not  find  a  ready 
sale  in  the  butcher  shop  is  thus  worked  up  into  a  more  salable  product. 
Naturally  fat  is  also  added  and  chopped  up  with  the  meat  in  larger  or 
smaller  quantities. 

Chopped  meat  is  consumed  either  raw,  after  flavoring  with  salt,  pep- 
per, and  onions,  especially  in  northern  and  middle  Germany,  or  is  used  for 
the  preparation  of  meat  sausage,  meat  balls,  and  various  other  dishes 
(German  beefsteak,  hamburger  steak). 

In  order  that  the  chopped  meat  should  retain  the  red  muscular  coloring  matter, 
sulphurous  acid  and  its  salt  are  frequently  added,  which,  however,  do  not  retard  all 
decomposition. 

Meyer  examined  the  bacterial  contents  of  chopped  meat  by  sowings  on  gelatin 
plates  and  found  1,695,000  to  12,717,000  bacteria  to  I  g.  of  meat.  The  number  of 
bacteria  was  not  influenced  by  the  usual  additions  of  preservative  salts. 

2.  Sausage 

By  sausage  is  understood  a  mixture  of  meat  which  is  placed  into  a 
sausage  covering.  For  coverings  the  intestines  are  principally  employed, 
the  serous  membrane  being  inverted  (see  page  34)  ;  besides  the  esophagus 
of  cattle,  the  stomach  of  hogs  and  the  urinary  bladder  of  various  food 
animals  are  also  used.  Lately  the  so-called  artificial  parchment  is  also 
used  as  a  cover  or  casing. 

The  varieties  of  sausages  and  their  preparations  vary  considerably  in 
the  different  countries.  This  applies  especially  to  those  varieties  of  sau- 
sages to  which  larger  quantities  of  vegetable  ingredients  are  added.  The 
principal  ingredients  of  sausage  are  always  muscle  meat  and  fat,  besides 


72     Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

blood,  heart,  tongue,  connective  tissue,  hog  skin,  liver,  and  various  other 
parts  of  the  viscera.  In  order  to  make  the  sausage  tasty,  spices  (salt, 
saltpeter,  sugar,  pepper,  paprika,  caraway,  marjoram,  garlic,  onions,  cori- 
ander, cinnamon,  clove,  truffle,  sardelle,  etc.)  are  added  to  the  animal 
ingredients.  Many  varieties  of  sausages  are  prepared  for  an  early 
(immediate)  consumption;  in  order  to  increase  the  keeping  qualities  of 
sausage  they  are  either  smoked  only  or  they  are  at  first  boiled  and  then 
smoked. 

In  accordance  with  the  composition  of  the  filling  the  following  varie- 
ties of  sausages  may  be  distinguished  : 

A,    Meat  Sausages 

The  meat  sausage  consists  chiefly  of  chopped  beef,  pork,  or  veal.  For 
commercial  purposes  they  are  divided  into : 

1.  Fresh  sausage  and  sausage  for  boiling  or  scalding,  which  are 
sold  under  various  names. 

2.  Sausages  of  keeping  qualities,    which    are    known    as    cervelat, 
summer  sausage,  etc. 

Since  fresh  sausage  or  sausage  for  boiling  are  destined  for  early  con- 
sumption, they  do  not  contain  any  preservatives,  and  at  most  they  might 
be  slightly  smoked  in  order  to  improve  the  taste.  The  sausages  with  keep- 
ing qualities,  on  the  other  hand,  should  keep  for  a  longer  period.  This 
is  accomplished  by  the  reduction  of  the  contents  of  water  in  the  filling  by 
drying  and  by  smoking.  The  addition  of  water  to  sausage  filling  of  fresh 
sausage  or  those  for  boiling  or  scalding  is  usual  and  positively  necessary 
when  the  mass  is  to  be  filled  in  the  narrow  casings.  The  absorbing  power 
possessed  by  sausages  for  water  (see  page  38)  depends  on  the  binding 
quality  of  the  meat.  The  higher  or  lower  binding  quality  of  the  meat 
influences  the  consistence  of  the  sausage  mass  inside  of  the  covering  and 
therefore  the  slicing  of  the  sausage  as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the  cut 
surface.  The  quantity  of  the  added  water,  which  amounts  to  about  24  per 
cent.,  according  to  Hofmann,  is  of  no  special  importance,  since  through 
the  hot  smoking  of  boiled  sausages  and  others,  not  only  the  added  water 
is  lost,  but  frequently  even  a  portion  of  the  natural  content  of  water  of 
the  meat.  For  this  reason,  and  also  on  account  of  the  taste  of  the  public 
demanding  juicy,  well-stuffed  sausages,  the  addition  of  water  to  the  filling 
of  this  variety  of  sausages  cannot  be  considered  as  an  adulteration. 

The  addition  of  flour  to  sausage  filling,  which  for  a  time  had  assumed 
considerable  proportions,  was  declared  by  the  butchers  to  be  an  absolute 
necessity,  on  account  of  the  meat  losing  its  binding  qualities  through  the 
fattening  foods  used  by  the  hog  raisers.  This,  however,  cannot  be  con- 
firmed as  there  are  places  where  the  addition  of  flour  is  never  practiced, 
yet  they  produce  a  splendid  meat  sausage.  If  the  addition  of  flour  is  kept 


Sausage  73 

within  a  certain  limit  (about  2  per  cent.),  it  does  not  necessarily  indicate 
in  boiled  or  scalded  sausages  a  deterioration,  as  it  thickens  the  juice  of 
the  sausage  and  makes  the  sausage  more  palatable.  However,  the  addi- 
tion of  flour  is  only  permissible  where  the  consumers  are  aware  of  that 
practice.  In  sausage  with  keeping  qualities  the  addition  of  any  quantity  of 
flour  means  an  adulteration.  The  supposition  that  the  addition  of  flour 
to  the  sausage  filling  makes  the  absorption  of  a  larger  quantity  of  water 
possible  is  erroneous,  as  starch  flour  absorbs  water  only  in  boiling,  and 
boiling  water  or  prepared  paste  is  not  employed  in  the  preparation  of 
sausage. 

With  the  addition  of  mixtures  of  egg-albumen  and  tragacanth,  the  so-called 
"albumina,"  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  sausage  filling  consisting  of  35  kg.  meat  and 
50  kg.  water,  with  a  content  of  only  3  per  cent,  of  "albumina."  Therefore  such  an 
addition  must  be  considered  as  an  adulteration. 

Although  the  coloring  of  the  sausage  filling  is  prohibited  for  the  German 
Empire  (see  also  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Reg.  22,  Sees,  i  and  2)  by  the  imperial 
decree  of  February  16,  1902,  it  should,  however,  find  brief  mention  here.  The 
coloring,  which  was  frequently  employed  in  the  production  of  sausages  of  keeping 
qualities,  was  principally  practiced  to  prevent  the  color  of  the  filling  turning  gray 
and  especially  in  order  to  prevent  this  occurrence  on  the  cut  surfaces.  The  turn- 
ing of  the  color  is  due  to  a  change  of  the  muscle  coloring  matter  into  a  colorless 
modification,  which  does  not  necessarily  indicate  a  simultaneous  spoiling  of  the 
muscle  substance.  The  causes  for  the  sausage  turning  gray  have  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  established.  According  to  Meyer,  this  occurs  through  a  loss  of  salt 
in  the  sausage  filling,  which  progresses  gradually  toward  the  center  by  means  of 
osmosis,  and  naturally  may  soon  affect  the  cut  surface  uniformly,  thereby  turning 
it  gray.  It  is  possible  that  an  insufficient  nitrite  formation  from  the  saltpeter  of 
the  sausage  filling  might  play  a  part  in  the  change  of  the  color,  which,  as  it  has 
been  indicated  by  K.  B.  Lehmann  and  Kalbrenner,  changes  the  hemoglobin  into  a 
new  red  blood  coloring  derivative  (the  hemorrhodin).  (See  also  page  96).  Glage 
explains  the  turning  gray  of  the  sausage  to  the  action  of  the  volatile  sulphur  com- 
pound in  the  meat  (N2S)  in  combination  with  oxygen  on  the  muscle  coloring 
matter. 

As  coloring  matter  there  is  employed  most  frequently  cochineal  or  the  carmine 
which  is  derived  from  it.  There  are  also  employed  numerous  preparations  with 
various  names  (karnit,  albon-karnit,  rubro-karnit,  etc.),  but  coal-tar  preparations 
as  fuchsin,  safranin,  ponceau,  rosalin,  and  eosin  are  seldom  used. 

Through  coloring,  meat  of  a  lesser  value  and  that  which  contains  only  a  small 
amount  of  muscle  coloring  matter  may  be  changed  into  better  appearing  meat,  and 
the  fat  in  the  sausage  may  also  be  changed  to  such  an  extent  that  it  simulates 
meat. 

The  coloring  of  the  casings  (sausage  cover)  is  not  affected  by  the  above-men- 
tioned prohibition.  However,  unwholesome  stains  (for  instance  korollin)  should 
not  be  permitted  to  be  used. 

[The  use  of  coloring  matters  in  the  preparation  of  sausage  is  pro- 
hibited in  the  United  States.     This,  however,  applies  only  to  the  sausage 


74      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

filling,  while  for  the  casings  coloring  matters  which  are  approved  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  be  used.  (See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Reg.  22, 
Sec.  2,  Par.  i.)] 

B.  Blood  Sausages 

The  blood  sausages  are  prepared  from  blood  (as  a  rule,  hog  blood), 
mixed  with  small  cubes  of  cooked  fats  and  lean  pork  meat,  heart,  tongue, 
hog  skin,  lung,  and  spices.  The  meat  ingredients,  mixed  with  blood,  are 
filled  into  casings  and  the  sausages  are  boiled  for  the  purpose  of  coagulat- 
ing the  blood.  This  must  be  carefully  accomplished  and  the  larger  the 
dimensions  of  the  sausage  and  the  more  vegetable  substance  they  contain 
the  more  attention  they  require.  To  insure  the  keeping  qualities  of 
the  sausage  they  are  smoked  and  are  sold  under  the  names  of  red-sausage, 
black-sausage,  tongue-sausage. 

C,  White  Sausages 

These  varieties  of  sausages,  which  are  also  called  soft  sausages  on 
account  of  their  consistency,  are  prepared  from  boiled  and  chopped  vis- 
ceral parts,  especially  from  the  liver.  Besides  in  these  sausages  are 
utilized  the  lungs,  stomachs  of  ruminants,  brains,  finely  cut  pork  and  veal, 
with  the  addition  of  considerable  quantities  of  rendered  or  cooked  fat  in 
cubes.  The  addition  of  the  various  kinds  of  spices  makes  these  sausages 
especially  tasteftil,  and  are  named  accordingly  (onion,  charlotte,  sardell, 
truffle,  and  liver  sausage,  etc.).  After  cooking  they  are  consumed  either  in  a 
fresh  or  smoked  state.  The  light  color  of  the  cooked  ingredients  of  the 
sausage  gives  the  cut  surface  the  gray  to  whitish  color  (white  sausage). 

Similar  to  these  varieties  of  sausage  is  the  preparation  and  consistency  of  most 
of  the  commercially  known  meat  pastes  (goose  liver,  fowl,  etc.),  in  which  the 
liver  is  the  principal  constituent. 

D,    Jelly  Sausages 

They  are  prepared  from  those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  rich  in 
connective  tissue,  as  skin  and  head  of  hogs,  head  and  feet  with  the  skin 
of  calves,  the  muzzle  of  cattle,  etc.,  with  the  addition  of  fat  and  lean  meat, 
as  well  as  spices.  The  cooked  or  scalded  meat  and  other  ingredients  are 
cut  and  filled,  as  a  rule,  into  a  stomach  or  bladder  of  a  hog,  and  the  volu- 
minous sausages  are  then  thoroughly  boiled.  In  this  process  jelly  forms 
inside  of  the  sausage,  which  after  cooling  coagulates,  and  thereby  binds 
the  ingredients  of  the  sausage.  In  order  that  the  binding  should  be  as 
uniform  as  possible,  and  that  the  sausage  should  attain  the  desired  firm- 
ness and  should  slice  well,  it  is  pressed  until  completely  cooled.  The 
jelly  sausage  is  mostly  consumed  in  the  fresh  state,  but  also  may  be 


Culinary  Preparation  of  the  Meat  75 

smoked  to  increase  its  keeping  qualities.     It  is  known  under  the  names, 
pressed  hogs'  head,  pressed  sack,  pressed  sausage. 

E,     Sausages  with  Larger  Quantities  of  Vegetable  Matter 

The  animal  basic  substances  of  these  sausages  are  usually  blood  with 
fat  or  lean  pork  meat,  or  a  white  sausage  filling.  To  these  are  added, 
besides  various  spices,  larger  quantities  of  vegetable  substances,  which 
are  rich  in  carbohydrates,  as  groats,  bread,  boiled  rice,  rolls,  boiled  pota- 
toes, corinths,  raisins,  sugar,  etc.  The  filled  sausages  for  which  the 
stomach  or  bladder  of  hogs  are  frequently  used  as  containers,  are  cooked 
and  consumed  when  fresh,  or  they  may  be  preserved  by  smoking.  This 
kind  of  sausage  is  principally  prepared  for  the  household,  and,  therefore, 
almost  every  locality  has  its  own  characteristic  sausage  belonging  to  this 
group. 

3,     Culinary  Preparation  of  the  Meat 

The  culinary  preparation  should  render  the  meat  tasteful  and  more 
tender,  but  it  is  not  necessarily  made  more  digestible. 

Considering  the  digestibility  of  culinary  prepared  meat,  Popoff  established  the 
following  scale  of  values : 

If  of  raw  beef,  100  parts  are  digested,  then  the  digestibility  of  boiled  beef 
is  83.4  parts;  of  smoked  beef  is  71  parts;  of  smoked  and  boiled  beef  is  60  parts. 

Different  results  were  obtained  by  Lebbin,  who  found  that  the  nutritive  value 
stands  the  highest  in  smoked  beef;  this  is  followed  in  a  gradual  decline  by  roasted 
meat,  pickled  meat,  raw  chopped  meat,  soup  meat,  and  broiled  meat. 

A.  H.  Chittenden  and  W.  Commins  found  the  following  results  on  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  various  kind  of  meats  through  artificial  gastric  juice.  If  the  digesti- 
bility of  beef  is  placed  at  100,  then 

Veal  .  =  94.89%  Trout         : ..        .  .  =  78.45% 

Mutton       .         .  .  =  92.15%  Eel      .         .         .  .  =  71.82% 

Lamb  .         .  .  =  87.93%  Haddock    .          ,  .  =  82.50% 

Fowl    (white  meat")  .  =  86.72%  Herring      .         .  .  =  82.34% 

Fowl    (dark    meat)  .  =  84.42%  Lobster        .         .  .  =  87.81% 

Salmon        .         .  .  =  92.29%  Crab    ...  ..  ==  67.13% 

If  under  the  same  condition  100  per  cent,  of  boiled  beef  would  be  digested,  that 
of  raw  beef  would  amount  to  142.38  per  cent. 

The  experiments  with  artificial  gastric  juice  do  not  disclose  the  actual  utili- 
zation of  the  meat  in  the  body,  especially  the  nitrogenous  substances  as  the 
intestinal  digestion  completes  that  of  the  stomach. 

The  tastefulness  and  tenderness  of  meat  can  be  best  accomplished  in  the 
kitchen,  provided  it  has  attained  the  required  ripeness  through  which  the  developing 
lactic  acid  swells  an,d  loosens  the  connective  tissue  parts  of  the  muscles.  Such 
loosening  may  be  also  obtained  by  placing  the  meat  into  vinegar  or  milk. 

According  to  Sygoal,  Schmidt-Nielson's  investigations  fish  meat  also  undergoes 
a  ripening  process,  and  especially  salted  fish  should  be  allowed  to  go  through  the 
process.  Fish  rich  in  fat  as  herring,  salmon,  trout,  mackerel,  and  others  ripen 


76      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

even  when  in  pickle,  while  in  the  salting  of  haddock  and  other  lean  fish  the  ripen- 
ing does  not  take  place.  The  fish  muscles  contain  enzymes  the  same  as  those  of 
the  mammals,  which  accomplish  the  splitting  that  represents  the  ripening  process. 
The  latter  is  brought  on  by  autolysis. 

On  the  other  hand,  according  to  the  investigation  of  Haldik,  freshly  slaugh- 
tered meat,  with  a  suitable  preparation  (cooking  in  small  pieces  or  stewing  as 
gulash  in  small  pieces),  is  usually  just  as  tasty  as  ripened  meat;  however,  in 
roasting  it  becomes  very  tough  and  unpalatable. 

A.  Boiling 

To  obtain  a  good  meat  broth  through  the  boiling  of  meat  the  latter 
must  set  on-  the  fire  with  cold  water  and  boil  slowly  for  3-4  hours.  But 
should  it  be  desired  to  obtain  boiled  meat  which  is  juicy,  then  the  raw 
meat  must  be  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  the  boiling  heat  must  not  be 
permitted  to  be  reduced  to  any  great  extent.  In  this  way  there  will  soon 
form  on  the  surface  of  the  meat  a  coagulated  layer,  which  prevents  the 
juices  from  escaping.  In  consequence,  only  traces  of  muscle  albumen  pass 
into  the  water  and  they  are  manifested  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in 
the  form  of  a  light  coagulated  scum.  The  heat  enters  the  inside  of  the 
meat  slowly  and  is  indicated  by  the  change  of  the  red  muscle  coloring  mat- 
ter to  the  familiar  gray  color  of  the  meat,  the  change  requiring  a  tempera- 
ture of  at  least  73°  C. 

The  reddening  of  the  meat  on  the  surface  in  boiling  is,  according  to  Kisskalt, 
the  result  of  the  presence  of  nitrous  acid  (N2O3)  in  the  water  in  which  the  boil- 
ing takes  place.  Especially  does  the  superficial  reddening  of  the  meat  readily 
occur  if  fresh  meat  is  boiled  in  bouillon,  which  is  12-24  hours  old,  as  in  such 
bouillon  N2O5  reducing  bacteria  are  remarkably  propagated.  But  the  N2O5 
enters  the  bouillon  either  from  the  water  or  from  the  customary  soup  vegetables 
which  are  used  in  its  preparation.  It  is  natural  that  meat  which  has  been  treated 
with  sulphurous  salts  will  also  become  carmin  red  on  boiling. 

The  unchanged  red  color  of  the  salted  or  pickled  meat  which  remains  after 
boiling,  is  produced,  according  to  Haldane,  through  the  presence  of  nitric 
oxyhemo-chromogen,  which  is  formed  as  a  result  of  heating  from  nitric  oxyhemo- 
globin,  to  which  also  the  unboiled  pickled  meat  owes  its  redness. 

B.  Steaming 

In  steaming  or  stewing  it  is  best  not  to  allow  the  meat  to  come  in 
contact  with  water,  but  only  steam  heat.  For  this  purpose,  Papin's  steam 
boiling  pot  is  splendidly  adapted.  The  stewing  may  also  be  accomplished 
by  placing  the  meat  in  a  boiling  hot  fat  gravy,  and  this  is  constantly  poured 
over  the  meat  in  order  to  obtain  quickly  a  superficially  coagulated  layer, 
in  order  to  retain  the  juice  in  the  inside  of  the  meat.  As  a  result  of  this, 
well-stewed  meat  is  generally  more  tasteful  than  boiled  meat. 

C.  Roasting 

It  is  aimed  through  the  roasting  of  meat  with  the  influence  of  high 
temperature  (boiling  fat),  to  produce  quickly  an  outside  coagulated  layer 


Culinary  Preparation  of  the  Meat  77 

in  order  that  as  much  as  possible  of  the  juice  should  be  retained  in  the 
meat,  and  which  will  be  replaced  by  a  gradual  infiltration  of  fat.  The 
latter  serves  also  to  increase  the  juiciness  and  the  tastefulness  of  the  roast, 
while  the  other  peculiarities  may  be  attributed  (Stutzer)  to  the  penetra- 
tion of  burning  products  and  to  the  decomposition  of  the  meat  bases 
(kreatin,  sarkin).  If  it  is  desired  to  prepare  a  so-called  English  roast  the 
inside  of  which  remains  red,  the  inside  temperature  should  not  rise  over 
63-65°  C. 

D,  Penetration  of  Meat  by  High  Temperature 

As  meat  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat,  high  temperatures  penetrate 
slowly  into  it.  Bones  in  the  meat  increase  conduction  of  heat.  Concern- 
ing the  penetration  of  heat  into  meat  and  meat  products,  the  following 
investigations  were  made: 

Rupprecht  established  that  in  boiling  blood  sausage  the  inside  temperature  of 
the  meat  only  reached  66°  C.,  in  jelly  and  tongue  sausage  62.5°,  and  in  pressed  hog's 
stomach  sausage  only  58.70°  C.  The  temperature  of  the  inside  of  boiled  ham  he 
established  at  65°,  and  the  same  for  pork,  when  prepared  the  usual  way  cooked 
with  vegetables.  In  frying  meat  balls,  the  inside  temperature  rises  to  58.75°,  and 
in  quick  frying  of  sausage  only  to  28.75°  C. 

According  to  Kiichenmeister,  in  boiling  larger  pieces  of  meat  for  ^  an  hour 
a  temperature  of  only  55°  C.  is  reached;  even  after  boiling  for  several  hours  it 
reaches  only  to  77-80°  C. 

Leuckart  states  that  in  fried  sausage  and  cutlets  a  temperature  of  62.5°  and 
in  roast  pork  75°  C.  is  obtained,  which,  however,  does  not  rise  over  65°  C,  if  the 
roast  is  prepared  in  the  English  style. 

Wolfhiigel  and  Hiippe  established  in  their  extensive  experiments  the  following : 

1.  Three  thermometers  inserted  into  a  calf  leg  of  14.25  kg.  after  a  roasting  of 
3^2  hours  at  a  maximal  temperature  of  103°  C.,  registered  71,  76,  and  89°   C. 

2.  A  similar  experiment  with  a  smoked  ham  of  4.5  kg.  after  4  hours  boiling  in 
salt  water  with  a  maximal  temperature  of  102°  C.,  showed  75,  77,  and  78°  C. 

3.  The    thermometer    registered   93.96   and    98°    C.    in    a    fresh   piece    of  veal 
weighing  3  kg.   after  three  hours  of  roasting,   in   which   the  heat  in  the  roasting 
oven  reached  155°   C. 

4.  A  temperature  of  91   and  92°   C.  was  obtained  in  the  inside  of  a  piece  of 
beef  weighing  3  kg.,  placed  on  the  fire  in  boiling  water  and  kept  boiling  for  2^/2 
hours  by  which  a  temperature  of   105°   C.  was  reached  in  the  water. 

5.  In  the   same   size  piece   of  beef,   but   which   was   placed   in   a   fire   in  cold 
water,  the  temperature  registered  95  and  96°  C. 

From  these  experiments  it  may  be  observed  that  the  inside  temperature  of 
larger  pieces  of  meat  (over  3-4  kg.)  even  in  boiling  or  roasting  for  several  hours 
never  reaches  a  temperature  of  100°  C. 

In  the  application  of  steam  under  pressure  the  temperature  of  the  meat  rises 
in  a  comparatively  ^hort  time  to  over  100°  C. 

E,  Losses  in  Meat  in  Its  Preparation  in  ihe  Kitchen 

Losses  in  weight.  In  the  culinary  preparation  the  meat  loses  in  the  first  place 
water.  According  to  Voit,  after  boiling  100  g.  of  fresh  meat  it  gives  an  average 
of  57  g.  with  about  40  per  cent,  dry  substance.  Forster  established  the  content 


78      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

of  dry  substance  in  boiled  meat  at  40-46  per  cent;  in  roast  meat  at  30-40  per  cent. 
Nothwang  found  that  100  g.  of  fresh  meat  give  after  boiling  i,  il/2  and  2  hours, 
respectively,  68.9,  59.0,  and  54.6  g ;  in  stewing,  68.2,  48.0,  and  48.2  g. 

In  stewing  or  steaming  the  loss  in  weight  is  generally  smaller;  it  fluctuates 
between  20-30  per  cent. 

According  to  Peters,  fish  meat  loses  about  30.18  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  stew- 
ing through  the  loss  of  water ;  from  the  dry  substances  only  2  per  cent,  is  lost. 

In  roasting,  the  loss  of  weight  depends  on  the  degree  of  the  roasting.  100  g. 
raw  lean  meat,  according  to  Konig,  produce  62-85  g.  moderately  roasted  meat;  in 
thorough  roasting,  however,  only  58  g. 

According  to  Grindley  and  Timothy  Mojonnier,  in  the  boiling  of  beef  3.25-12.67 
per  cent,  nitrogenous  substances,  0.60-37.40  per  cent,  fat  and  20.04  to  67.39  per  cent, 
mineral  constituents  pass  into  the  water  from  the  original  meat.  In  heating  the 
meat  with  fat,  on  an  average  2.15  per  cent,  nitrogenous  substances  and  3.07  per  cent, 
ashes  are  absorbed  by  the  fat,  while  the  meat  contains  2.3  times  the  quantity  of  fat  as 
before  the  frying. 

Losses  in  nutritive  substances.  Still  more  important  are  the  losses  of  extrac- 
tives and  phosphoric  acid.  Nothwang  found  a  loss  of  the  first  in  boiling  and  stew- 
ing of  50-60  per  cent.,  while  of  the  latter  about  35  per  cent.  In  the  roasting  of 
meat  the  losses  are  somewhat  slighter. 

In  the  boiling  of  pickled  meat,  which  already  suffers  a  loss  of  extractives  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  the  pickling,  according  to  Nothwang,  it  sustains  a  further  loss 
of  23.4  per  cent,  of  extractives  and  19.05  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid ;  and  in  stew- 
ing these  losses  amount  to  20.6  per  cent,  and  19.3  per  cent.  The  combined  losses  of 
pickled  meat  in  boiling  and  stewing  amount  to  65.6-67  per  cent,  in  the  extractives 
and  39.50-44.45  per  cent,  in  phosphoric  acid. 

4,     Conserving  of  the  Meat 

All  meats  contain  certain  preserving  qualities  which  depend  on  con- 
ditions which  are  in  the  meat  itself,  and  also  on  outside  influences.  To  the 
first  belong  especially  the  blood  and  juice  contents  of  the  meat,  and  the 
health  or  disease  as  well  as  the  exhaustion  or  rest  of  the  animal  before 
slaughter.  The  influence  of  the  outside  conditions  on  the  meat  depends 
principally  on  the  activity  of  the  putrefactive  organisms.  They  reach  the 
meat  from  the  air  or  from  soiling  the  meat,  entering  through  the  contami- 
nated portions  of  the  surface,  through  the  blood  or  lymph  vessels,  the 
excretory  ducts  of  the  glands,  the  connective  tissue  spaces,  etc.,  into  the 
inside  of  the  meat. 

While  all  the  requirements  which  favor  the  biologic  conditions  for  the 
putrefactive  bacteria  (moisture,  heat,  deficiency  in  oxygen),  reduce  the 
preserving  qualities  of  the  meat,  the  latter  will  be  increased,  in  cases  of 
adverse  conditions.  And  consequently  all  methods  of  conserving  of  meat 
are  directed  towards  keeping  away  and  diminishmg^the  outside  influences 
for  the  development  of  putrefactive  bacteria.  This  purpose  is  obtained 
through  physical  or  chemical  agents  and  methods,  or  with  the  aid  of  both. 

Deichstetter  and  Emmerich  recommended  the  use  of  sterile  instruments  in 
the  slaughter  of  animals  to  as  great  an  extent  as  is  possible,  to  spray  the  surface 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  79 

of  the  meat  with  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  for  dry  keeping  it  should  be  packed  in 
sterilized  sawdust,  which  has  been  saturated  with  sodium  chloride ;  or  if  it  is  not 
to  be  transported,  but  allowed  to  hang,  it  should  be  wrapped  with  cloth  saturated  in 
glycerin-acetic  acid.  The  method  however  is  not  satisfactory  for  keeping  the  meat 
for  a  long  time  in  a  fresh  state.  A  better  method  is  described  by  Deichstetter  and 
Emmerich  (page  90)  which,  combined  with  the  previous  method,  if  carefully 
carried  out,  enables  the  keeping  of  meat  for  weeks  in  a  fresh  state. 

A*     Physical  Conserving  Methods 
1,     Conserving  by  Extraction  of  Water 

(a)     Drying  of  Meat 

By  this  very  old  and  simple  method  the  meat  is  cut  into  strips  and  is 
dried  quickly  in  the  air.  In  this  way  the  meat  becomes  so  hard  and  tough 
that  even  a  later  soaking  and  cooking  does  not  make  it  perfectly  soft.  In 
the  meat  trade  this  method  is  principally  employed  for  the  conserving  of 
haddock. 

The  meat  preparation  which  is  made  in  South  America  in  a  similar 
manner  (chargue  dulce),  or  by  previous  salting  of  the  meat  (chargue. 
tasajo,  or  jerked  beef,  Knuth),  is  not  brought  to  Europe. 

Also  the  so-called  "paprika  bacon''  may  correctly  belong  here,  inas- 
much as  it  represents  fresh  bacon  rubbed  with  paprika  and  dried  in  the  air. 

(b)     Preparation  of  Meat  Flour 

The  meat  flour  which  is  prepared  and  sold  in  South  America  under  the  name 
"carne  pura,"  or  meat  powder,  is  prepared  from  muscle,  which  is  ground  to  pulp, 
then  dried,  milled  to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  salt.  Tho 
preparation  contains  about  70  per  cent,  digestible  nitrogen,  but  has  a  burned  odor 
and  taste.  Because  of  this  and  its  high  price  it  has  not  found  a  general  market. 

2,     Conserving  by  Closing  Out  the  Air 

This  very  old  method,  especially  employed  in  the  household,  consists  in  pour- 
ing over  the  fresh,  boiled,  or  roasted  meat,  liquid  fats  which  again  stiffen,  thereby 
supplying  the  meat  with  an  air-proof  covering.  For  the  wholesale  trade  in  meats 
this  method  of  preservation  is  useless. 

3.     Enclosing  in  Air-tight  Containers 
(a)     Sterilisation  by  Boiling 

This  method,  jwhich  was  discovered  by  Appert  in  1809,  led  to  the  pro- 
duction of  canned  meat.  In  this  procedure  the  meat  is  freed  from  bones, 
tendons,  and  fat,  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  then  packed  as  fresh,  pickled,  or 
boiled  meat  into  tin  cans  to  which  the  covers  are  tightly  soldered.  The 


8o      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

cans  are  boiled  for  3-4  hours  under  steam  pressure,  whereby  the  cans 
become  swelled.  According  to  Groning  they  are  pricked  in  one  place  in 
order  that  the  possible  presence  of  surplus  fat  may  be  poured  off  and  that 
the  air  might  be  extracted  from  the  cans  in  the  vacuum  apparatus.  The 
drawing  in  of  the  walls  during  this  procedure  is  a  positive  indication  that 
the  cans  are  tight.  After  soldering  of  the  small  opening,  the  cans  are 
again  heated  for  a  longer  period ;  as  a  result  of  the  heat  the  meat  will  be 
sterilized.  In  cooling  the  cans  they  must  be  constantly  moved,  in  order 
that  the  liquid  ingredients  should  be  uniformly  distributed  in  the  can,  so 
that  when  they  have  coagulated  into  a  jelly  they  might  hold  together  firmly 
the  pieces  of  meat  in  the  container. 

In  a  similar  way  any  kind  of  meat  foods  may  be  preserved  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  vegetables,  and  such  can  preserves  form  an 
unsparable  proviant  for  the  army  maintenance  in  the  field,  ships,  etc. 

The  North  American  corned  beef  is  prepared  from  pickled  meat,  which  is  boiled 
before  pressing  it  into  the  can;  however,  the  soldered  cans  are  again  subjected  to 
boiling  heat.  In  the  same  way  is  prepared  the  corned  mutton  and  corned  pork  or 
corned  brawn  (pork  meat).  As  the  importation  of  canned  meats  into  Germany  has 
been  prohibited  since  October  i,  1900,  the  German  can  preserve  industry  has  expe- 
rienced a  considerable  growth. 

[The  canned-meat  industry  has  assumed  extensive  proportions  in  the 
United  States,  and  as  the  meat-inspection  law  of  1906  has  control  of  these 
meat  products  a  knowledge  of  the  process  of  their  preparation  is  deemed 
essential  in  connection  with  the  supervision  of  the  work. 

The  preparation  of  canned  meats  differs  not  alone  with  the  different 
kinds  of  meats  to  be  preserved,  but  also  the  process  may  differ  consider- 
ably in  the  various  establishments.  The  differences,  however,  affect  only 
some  minor  details,  while  the  essential  points  of  the  process  are  the  same. 
Inasmuch  as  the  principal  canned  products  are  corned  beef  and  potted 
meats,  only  the  manufacture  of  these  two  will  be  described,  all  others 
being  more  or  less  similar  to  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  processes. 

In  canning  potted  meats  the  meat  is  boiled  for  about  40  minutes,  after 
which  it  is  hashed  sufficiently  fine,  and  immediately  spread  in  shal- 
low pans  or  trays,  which  are  placed  in  a  retort  and  heated  to  82°  C. 
(180°  F.)  for  20  minutes  and  then  emptied  into  receptacles  from  which 
the  meat  is  conveyed  into  the  stuffing  machine.  In  the  handling  of  the 
meats  all  delays  should  be  avoided,  and  the  cans  should  be  filled  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  The  tops  of  the  cans,  after  they  leave  the  stuffer,  are  cleaned 
off  and  the  can  is  then  capped.  The  caps  are  soldered  immediately  by 
passing  the  cans  through  an  automatic  soldering  machine,  and  the  vent  in 
the  cap  is  closed  by  hand  soldering  shortly  after  they  pass  through  the 
machine.  At  this  time  the  can  receives  the  first  inspection.  If  the  can 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  81 

appears  perfectly  closed,  it  is  passed  directly  to  the  process  retort,  where 
it  remains  for  i%  to  \y2  hours  (according  to  the  size  of  the  can),  under 
a  pressure  of  seven  pounds  at  110°  C.  (233°  F.).  If  inspection,  however, 
shows  that  the  can  is  imperfectly  closed  it  is  repaired  before  it  is  placed 
into  the  retort. 

Small  cans  are  not  passed  through  the  vacuum  machine  before  going 
to  the  process  retort,  as  they  are  handled  so  rapidly  that  sufficient  heat  is 
retained  in  the  product  after  being  placed  in  the  can  and  capped  to  estab- 
lish their  own  vacuum  before  the  vent  in  the  cap  is  closed. 

By  establishing  about  22"  vacuum  on  the  cans  they  collapse  and 
distend  again  from  internal  pressure,  after  being  placed  in  the  processing 
retort,  which  pressure  will  develop  some  leaks  and  imperfections  that 
were  not  detected  on  the  first  inspection.  Therefore  a  second  inspection  is 
made  as  soon  as  the  cans  are  taken  from  the  processing  retort,  and  any 
defective  cans  are  repaired  and  once  more  passed  through  the  retort.  The 
treatment  of  cans  by  passing  them  through  this  retort  for  varying  periods 
at  various  temperatures,  according  to  the  size  of  the  can  and  the  material 
under  treatment,  is  known  in  the  canning  business  by  the  term 
"processing." 

After  the  cans  are  sufficiently  processed  they  are  passed  through  a 
tub  of  hot  lye  for  the  purpose  of  removing  all  grease  from  the  outside  of 
the  can.  From  the  lye  tub  the  cans  pass  under  a  spray  of  cold  water, 
which  causes  them  to  collapse,  after  which  they  are  removed  into  the  label 
room.  From  this  time  any  can  showing  an  imperfect  condition  is  rejected 
as  unfit  for  food.  (B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Reg.  23,  sec  2.) 

In  the  canning  of  corned  beef  the  meat  is  first  boiled  for  one  hour  and 
then  placed  in  the  can,  which  is  capped  with  the  vent  open.  The  can  is 
then  placed  in  the  vacuum  machine,  under  a  22"  vacuum,  and  the  vent 
soldered,  or  the  vacuum  may  be  also  established  by  leaving  the  vent  open 
and  placing  the  can  in  the  process  retort  for  45  minutes  at  104.5°  C- 
(220°  F.),  then  removing  the  can  and  closing  the  vent  immediately  after  it 
ceases  blowing.  Another  method  of  establishing  the  vacuum  is  to  seal 
the  can  and  place  it  in  a  vat  of  boiling  water  for  one  hour,  then  it  is 
removed  and  punctured  with  a  sharp  instrument  and  sealed  as  soon  as 
the  can  stops  blowing.  If  the  can  contains  more  than  one  pound  of  meat 
the  time  in  the  retort  or  boiling  water  is  extended,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  can.  If  the  vacuum  has  been  established  by  the  vacuum  machine, 
the  meat  is  then  placed  in  the  process  retort  for  I  hour  and  45  minutes 
at  8  Ib.  pressure  (111°  C.)  ;  if  the  vacuum  has  been  established  in  the 
retort,  the  can  is  returned  to  the  retort  as  soon  as  the  vent  is  closed  and 
remains  in  the  retort  for  \y2  hours  at  /  Ib.  pressure  (110°  C.).  If  again 
the  vacuum  has  been  established  by  the  boiling  water  method  the  can  is 
processed  by  returning  to  the  boiling  water  for  two  hours,  or  by  placing 
7 


82     Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

in  the  retort  at  7  Ib.  pressure  for  il/2  hours.  The  processing  time  given 
above  applies  to  i  Ib.  cans.  In  larger  sizes  the  procedure  is  the  same 
only  the  time  is  increased  about  15  minutes  for  each  additional  pound. 

In  canning  roast  meat  the  meat  is  parboiled  only  for  30  minutes,  and 
the  water  method  is  not  used  to  establish  a  vacuum ;  otherwise  the  method 
is  the  same  as  that  for  canning  corned  beef,  but  a  higher  temperature  is 
maintained  in  the  retort.  After  the  processing  is  completed  the  method  is 
similar  to  that  described  above  for  potted  meats. 

The  following  imperfect  conditions  may  occur  in  the  preparation  of 
canned  meats : 

1.  Leaker,  a  can  in  which  air  has  gained  admittance  after  the  can  has 
been  supposedly  hermetically  closed. 

2.  Slow  leaker,  the  same  as  leaker  only  it  develops  in  the  course  of 
time  after  the  completion  of  the  process. 

3.  Sweller,  a  can  in  which  the  product  is  undergoing  some  putre- 
factive or  fermentative  change,  which  was  unnoticeable  at  the  time  of  the 
canning. 

4.  Short  process  can,  one  which  has  not  had  the  regular  amount  of 
processing  for  the  cooking  and  sterlizing  of  the  product. 

5.  Collapsed  can,  one  which  has  been  collapsed  by  the  application  of 
too  much  vacuum.     The  condition  occurs  principally  in  cans  which  have 
not  been  properly  stuffed. 

6.  Overstuffed  can,  one  which  has  been  strained  in  packing,  by  forc- 
ing too  much  of  the  product  into  it. 

7.  Strained  can,  one  which  has  been  overstuffed  or  strained  by  over- 
processing. 

8.  Do-over  can,  one  which  springs  a  leak  after  the  processing,  but 
before  entering  the  washing  machine  containing  the  lye  water.] 

Judgment 

[All  the  defects  of  cans  which  are  the  result  of  mechanical  imperfec- 
tions and  which  are  noticed  in  the  course  of  preparation  do  not  render  the 
meat  unwholesome,  provided  such  defects  are  corrected  within  6  hours  of 
the  original  sterilization.  In  all  other  cases  the  contents  of  the  cans  should 
be  considered  as  unwholesome,  and  should  be  condemned  in  accordance 
with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150  Regulation  23,  section  2.] 

(b)     Replacing  the  Air  zvith  Oil 

Of  the  various  methods  employed  to  replace  the  air  in  the  spaces 
between  pieces  of  meat  in  cans,  which  includes  pouring  meat-jelly  (gela- 
tin), meat-broth,  and  liquid-fat  over  the  meat,  only  the  use  of  oil  has 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  83 

attained  a  practical  importance.  The  latter  .is  particularly  employed  with 
fish,  which  are  cooked  in  oil,  packed  into  tin  boxes,  and  covered  with  oil 
(oil  sardines). 

4.     Preserving  with  Cold 

This  oldest  preserving  method  is  at  the  same  time  the  simplest,  and 
best  for  the  wholesale  industry.  Moreover,  the  quality  of  the  meat  is 
only  slightly  influenced  by  the  loss  of  a  small  amount  of  the  tasty  sub- 
stances ;  otherwise  it  ripens  and  becomes  delicate  and  tender.  The  pre- 
serving action  of  the  cold  consists  in  checking  the  development  of  the 
causes  of  putrefaction.  That  numerous  bacteria,  especially  the  pathogenic 
forms,  are  not  destroyed  by  low  temperatures,  was  proved  by  the  experi- 
ments of  Forster,  Pictet  and  Young  Coleman  and  Mickendrick,  Have- 
mann,  and  others. 

(a)     Laying  on  Ice 

This  simplest  application  of  cold  is  to  be  rejected,  especially  when  the  meat 
ii  placed  directly  on  natural  ice,  as  the  pathogenic  bacteria  which  the  ice  might 
contain  may  be  transmitted  to  the  meat.  Besides,  through  the  melting  of  the  ice. 
unnecessary  moisture  is  added  to  the  meat,  whereby  under  certain  conditions,  the 
buyer  would  be  at  a  disadvantage  regarding  the  weight  of  such  meat. 


-  45-  Refrigerating  railroad  car  for  transportation  of  meat,  after  Trapp. 
A,  axle ;  B,  belt ;  C,  driving  pulley ;  D,  ventilator ;  E,  receptacle  for  calcium  chloride ; 
F,  air  shaft;  G,  ice  chest. 

(b)     Influence  of  Cold  Air 

1.     Cooling  of  Air  by  Ice 

Through  the  storing  of  ice  and  its  gradual  melting,  the  surrounding 
air  is  cooled.  On  this  principle  are  based  the  preserving  properties  of  ice- 
boxes, ice-cellars,  ice'-houses.  The  various  constructions  of  these  cannot 
be  treated  here.  Their  qualities  depend  on  the  circulation  of  the  air  in  the 
meat-keeping  rooms,  and  on  their  thorough  insulation  against  radiating 
heat.  For  larger  plants  these  methods  are  not  satisfactory,  inasmuch  as 


84       Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

they  are  dependent  on  numerous  contingencies  (deficiency  of  ice,  exces- 
sive summer  heat,  failure  of  the  ventilation  arrangements,  etc.) 

On  this  principle  rests  also  the  transportation  of  meat  in  refrigerator  cars  which 
are  constructed  in  accordance  with  various  systems  (Straschiripka  and  Tiffany; 
Anderson,  Zimmermann,  Acclom,  Jaschka,  Wickes,  Schreiber,  Trapp,  and  others). 
The  construction  of  the  meat  transport  car  patented  by  abattoir  veterinarian  Trapp 
in  Strassburg  is  illustrated  and  described  under  Fig.  45. 


Fig.  46.  Schematic   sketch   of    the    principal    parts    of    a    cold-air    refrigerating 

apparatus 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  85 


2,     Refrigeration  Plant  Machines 

The  modern  operated  refrigeration  plant  with  machine  power  has  for 
its  object  the  continual  maintenance  independent  of  outside  influences  of 
a  temperature  ranging  from  4°  to  20°  C.  in  the  storage  room  for  meat. 
At  the  same  time  it  reduces  the  contents  of  moisture  to  at  least  70  per 
cent,  of  the  relative  moisture,  and  provides  for  a  continual  renewal  of  air, 
which  it  purifies.  For  this  purpose  every  refrigeration  plant  consists  of 
the  following  three  principal  parts :  The  cold  generator,  the  cold  trans- 
mitter, and  the  chilling  room  proper,  which  in  the  various  systems  is  dif- 
ferently constructed  and  arranged. 

As  refrigeration  machines1  at  the  present  time  can  be  considered  only 
the  "cold  steam''  or  "compression"  machines,  since  the  "cold  air"  or  "air 
expansion"  machines  cannot  be  utilized  in  the  meat  industry. 

The  refrigeration  machines  act  in  accordance  with  the  physical  law 
that  the  evaporation  of  liquids  consume  heat.  For  this  purpose  there  are 
principally  used  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  sulphuric  acid,  which  pass  in 
a  circle  through  a  system  of  pipes  and  are  compelled  to  remain  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  pipe  system  in  a  liquid  state,  as  a  result  of  low  temperature 
and  pressure,  while  in  the  other  part  of  the  system  they  have  an  opportu- 
nity for  evaporation.  The  principal  parts  of  the  refrigeration  machines 
are  the  compressor,  condenser,  and  evaporator.  The  operation  schemat- 
ically produced  according  to  Fig.  46,  is  as  follows : 

-  - « 

In  the  engine  room  is  a  steam  engine  A,  directly  connected  with  the  com- 
pressor B.  From  the  latter  a  pressure  pipe  connection  D  leads  to  the  condenser  K, 
from  which  a  pipe  connection  with  the  regulating  valve  C  leads  to  the  evaporator  V. 
The  condenser  and  evaporator  are  large  cylindrical  galvanized-iron  containers,  in 
which  the  mentioned  pipes  run  in  numerous  spiral  windings,  which  are  rinsed 
with  cold  and  continually  renewed  water  in  the  condenser,  and  in  the  evaporator  by 
a  salt  or  chloride  of  calcium  solution.  These  solutions  are  continually  kept  moving 
with  a  stirring  apparatus  which  are  also  operated  by  the  engine,  and  which  turn 
around  a  perpendicular  axis  inside  of  the  spiral  tubing.  The  spiral  piping  of  the 
evaporator  returns  to  the  compressor  as  a  suction  tube  S.  If,  now,  one  imagines  the 
pipe  system  D,  C,  S,  filled  with  one  of  the  mentioned  gases,  it  will,  as  a  result  of 
the  pressure  of  the  compressor  piston  and  from  the  cold  water  running  through  the 
spiral  piping  of  the  condenser,  change  into  a  liquid  state  with  a  constant  effort  to 
return  .to  a  gaseous  condition.  The  latter  occurs  in  the  evaporator  into  which  the 
gas  is  admitted  and  regulated  by  the  valve  C,  and  in  which  the  gas  is  no  longer 
kept  under  pressure,  but  on  the  contrary  suction  is  applied  to  it  through  the  pipe 
S  from  the  compressor.  During  the  evaporation,  the  gas  abstracts  heat  from  the 


1  For  extensive  descriptions  see  Lorenz,  New  Refrigeration  Machines,  their 
Construction,  Operation,  and  Industrial  Utilization,  Mimchen-Leipzig,  1901,  III 
Auflage ;  Statefeld,  The  Utilization  of  Refrigeration  Machines,  Berlin,  1901 ; 
Gottsche,  The  Refrigeration  Machines,  Hamburg,  1904;  also  Schwartz,  Construction, 
Arrangement  and  Operation  of  Public  Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards,  Berlin,  1898, 
II  edition,  and  Schwartz,  Machines  for  the  Operation  of  Abattoirs,  Berlin,  1901. 


86     Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

spiral  pipes  which  enclose  it,  and  these  again  from  the  salt  water  (salt-}- chloride  of 
calcium  solution)  which  surrounds  them,  by  which  the  latter  is  cooled  down  to 
minus  10-12°  C.  But  the  evaporated  gas  passes  again  as  mentioned  into  the  com- 
pressor, and  makes  the  described  circle  over  again.  The  cooled  salt  water  acts 
further  as  a  transmitter  of  cold  and  is  pumped  by  the  pump  P  from  the  evaporator, 
is  then  pressed  into  the  piping  W,  and  is  conveyed  into  the  air-cooling  chamber  L 
and  L',  from  which  it  enters  the  ice-manufacturing  tank  Z,  and  thence  returned. 

In  the  air-cooling  chamber,  the  salt-water  pipes  are  spread  in  numerous  wind- 
ings in  such  a  way  that  the  connection  of  each  chamber  may  be  detached  from  the 
other ;  therefore  each  chamber  may  be  operated  separately.  The  air-cooling  cham- 
bers are  connected  by  air  shafts  with  the  meat  cooler  proper  in  such  a  manner  that 
for  instance  the  air  shaft  T  conveys  the  air  from  the  cooler  into  the  air-cooling 
chamber  and  the  air  shafts  U  and  U'  permit  the  relurn  of  the  air  from  the  air- 
cooling  chambers  into  the  meat  cooler.  In  the  latter  the  distribution  of  the  cooled 
air  is  accomplished  by  canals  supplied  with  openings  which  are  attached  to  the 
ceiling.  In  a  similar  way  special  canals  are  present  for  the  air  to  be  drawn  away 
by  suction.  The  moving  of  the  air  between  the  mentioned  rooms  is  accomplished 
by  a  ventilator  M,  which  is  operated  either  by  electricity  or  by  transmission  from 
the  steam  engine  in  such  a  way  that  by  an  alternating  opening  or  closing  of  valves 
the  air  in  the  meat  cooler  is  ventilated  while  passing  around  the  pipes  of  the  air- 
cooling  chambers  L  and  L';  at  the  same  time  the  network  of  pipes  which  is  cooled 
down  to  zero,  abstracts  from  the  moving  air  heat  impurities  and  moisture  so  that 
the  air  is  returned  to  the  cooler  cooled,  purified  and  dried.  That  moisture  is 
abstracted  from  the  air  is  manifested  by  the  ice  deposits  on  the  pipes,  which  grad- 
ually gets  thicker,  and  also  encloses  the  impurities  which  the  air  contains.  The 
layer  of  ice  around  the  pipes,  however,  retards  more  and  more  the  radiation  of 
cold  from  the  pipe  system,  and  therefore  considerably  diminishes  the  cooling  action. 
For  this  reason,  after  certain  intervals  the  active  pipe  system  of  one  of  the  air- 
cooling  chambers  is  detached  and  the  other  placed  into  operation,  which  acts  like 
the  first.  In  the  meantime  the  first  thaws  out,  and  may  then  be  again  operated  when 
the  second  has  to  be  detached  on  account  of  the  thick  ice  covering.  The  ice- 
producing  tank  Z  serves  for  the  production  of  artificial  ice  for  which  purpose 
galvanized-iron  containers  are  filled  with  water  and  hung  into  the  salt  water  of  the 
tank;  the  water  is  permitted  to  freeze  and  the  containers  are  then  taken  out  of 
the  salt  water.  The  latter  are  then  dipped  into  warm  water  in  order  to  loosen  the 
ice  from  the  sides  of  the  container  and  the  ice  is  then  emptied  out.  Practical 
mechanical  installations  greatly  facilitate  the  necessary  work.  To  supply  the  meat 
cooler  with  fresh  air,  and  to  ventilate  them  when  they  do  not  contain  anything  for 
cooling,  the  ventilator  M  is  employed,  which  transmits  the  change  of  air  through 
the  air  shafts  F  and  F'. 

In  place  of  the  salt-water  piping,  which  can  also  be  connected  with  the  meat 
cooler,  although  this  cannot  be  recommended,  may  be  used  certain  arrangements 
for  cooling  the  air,  in  which  artificially  moving  air  is  run  over  the  surfaces  irrigated 
by  cold  salt  water  or  is  directed  through  the  salt  water.  Of  the  various  systems  of 
refrigeration  machines  those  of  Linde-Wiesbaden  (ammonia).  Humbold-Kalk 
(ammonia),  Riedinger- Augsburg  (carbonic  acid),  Borsig-Tegel  near  Berlin  (sul- 
phurous acid)  are  the  best  known. 

Regarding  the  equipment  of  the  meat  coolers  proper,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  mention  that  they  contain  racks  constructed  of  iron  railings  with 
arrangements  for  hanging  the  meat.  In  abattoirs  usually  special  chill- 


V 

OF 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  87 

rooms  and  cutting  rooms  are  also  constructed,  and  the  first  is  brought  into 
direct  connection  with  the  killing  floor,  from  which  the  dressed  carcass  is 
conveyed  without  much  effort  into  the  cooling  rooms  the  temperature  of 
which  is  not  kept  as  low  as  in  the  coolers  proper.  For  the  preservation  of 
fish,  game,  poultry,  etc.,  special  cooling  rooms  are  constructed,  the  air  of 
which  should  not  be  connected  with  the  rooms  where  fresh  meat  is  kept. 

For  controlling  the  temperature  and  the  moisture  of  air  in  the  cooling 
room  it  is  recommended  that  self-registering  thermometers  and  hygrom- 
eters be  installed,  which  in  some  places  are  required  by  regulation. 

3,     Freezing 

The  freezing  of  meat  is  accomplished  for  preserving  meat  an  unlim- 
ited time,  as  for  transatlantic  transportation.  The  equipment  for  this 
purpose  is  the  same  as  those  described  for  the  refrigeration  plants ;  the 
air,  however,  is  cooled  below  O°  C,  and  is  kept  constantly  under  the 
freezing  temperature. 

B.     Chemical  Preserving  Methods 
1.     Preservation  with  Salt 

On  the  preservative  action  of  salt  is  based  the  oldest  method,  gen- 
erally practiced  in  the  household,  as  well  as  in  the  wholesale  trade,  the 
salting  and  pickling  of  meat.  The  first  indicates  a  superficial  preservation 
for  a  shorter  time,  while  with  the  latter  a  complete  penetration  of  the 
meat  with  salt  is  obtained,  and  therefore  a  lasting  preservation.  This  is 
based  principally  on  the  dehydrating  action  of  the  salt  and  less  on  its 
germicidal  action. 

While  superficial  salting  may  be  carried  out  on  all  kinds  of  meats, 
pickling  is  best  adapted  for  pork  meat,  especially  bacon  on  account  of  its 
high  muscular  fat  content ;  fine-fibered  beef,  intermixed  with  fat 
(brisket),  also  produces  a  good  pickled  meat.  Lean  beef  as  well  as  veal 
and  mutton  get  dry  and  unpalatable  from  pickling. 

Regarding  the  application  of  the  salt,  nothing  further  need  be  said.  The  pro- 
cedure of  pickling  depends  on  the  time  to  be  consumed  and  on  the  desire  for  a 
certain  degree  of  preservation  of  the  meat  products.  If  one  desires  a  hurried 
pickling  (forced  pickling)  and  to  abstract  from  the  meat  only  a  little  moisture,  it 
ii>.  best  to  place  the  meat  in  a  salt  solution  (brine)  or  to  inject  this  solution  into 
the  meat  alongside  of  the  bone  or  into  the  connective  tissue  with  a  special  brine 
syringe  supplied  with  a  hollow  needle. 

In  the  latter  case  the  salt  acts  osmotically  on  the  meat,  both  from  the  outside 
and  from  the  inside.  The  keeping  quality  of  such  pickled  meat  is  not  very  high,  on 
account  of  the  large  content  of  water,  and  therefore  such  meat  is  usually  destined 
for  early  consumption  or  it  is  further  preserved  by  smoking.  In  slow  pickling  the 
surfaces  of  the  smaller  cuts  of  meat  are  rubbed  with  salt,  and  the  pieces  are 


88      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

packed  into  barrels,  each  layer  of  meat  being  thoroughly  covered  with  a  layer  of  salt. 
The  quantity  of  salt  to  be  used  is  about  50  g.  to  I  kg.  of  meat.  By  this  process 
there  is  also  formed  a  brine,  the  water  content  of  which  originates  almost  entirely 
from  the  meat.  The  latter,  therefore,  dries  out  considerably,  and  in  consequence 
such  meat  possesses  a  better  keeping  quality.  The  recently  recommended  "injec- 
tion pickling"  by  Fjelstrup,  by  injecting  the  blood-vessels  with  brine  immediately 
after  slaughter,  has  not  yet  reached  a  practical  importance. 

The  changes  which  meat  undergoes  through  pickling  are  the 
following : 

(a)  Turning  gray  of  the  muscles  due  to  change  of  the  muscle  col- 
oring matter.     To  prevent  this    saltpeter  is  added  to  the  salt,  which  is 
readily  reduced  to  nitrous  acid,  which  changes  the  hemoglobin   into   a 
bright  red  derivitive  (hemorrhodin,  Lehmann).    According  to  Haldame, 
through  the  action  of  the  nitrates  on  the  hemoglobin,  in  the  presence  of 
oxygen    and    reducing   substances,    nitricoxyd    hemoglobin    develops,    to 
which  the  uncooked  pickled  meat  also  owes  its  red  color.     Regarding  the 
red  color  of  the  pickled  meat  after  cooking,  see  page  76.     The  quantity 
of  saltpeter  usually  added  amounts  to  1^2-2  g.  to  each  kilo  of  meat,  and 
there  has  never  yet  been  found  injurious  quantities  of  this  cardiac  depres- 
sant  in   pickled   meat.      Glage   prefers   to   use   directly   small   quantities 
of  nitrates  in  the  pickling,  or  to  add  alkaline  phosphates  to  the  brine  to 
obtain  a  high  red  color  of  the  meat.     The  addition  of  cane-sugar  to  the 
brine  or  salt  mixture  increases  their  powers  of  checking  putrefaction. 

(b)  The  previously  mentioned  loss  of  water  depends  on  the  method 
of  pickling  and  the  original  contents  of  moisture  in  the  meat ;  it  may 
amount  to  10  or  15  per  cent. 

(c)  The  abstraction  of  nutritive  substances,  as  a  result  of  pickling, 
is  not  to  be  underestimated. 

According  to  Polenske  it  amounts  to : 

In    3    weeks    pickling    7.77%  N.  and  34.72%  phosphoric  acid  anhydride. 
In  3  months  pickling  10.08%  N.  and  54.46%  phosphoric  acid  anhydride. 
In  6  months  pickling  13.78%  N.  and  54.60%  phosphoric  acid  anhydride. 

Besides,  there  occurs  a  considerable  loss  of  extractive  substances 
(meat  bases),  and  potassium  salts  to  such  an  extent  that  pickled  meat  not 
only  possesses  a  relatively  smaller  nutritive  value  than  fresh  meat,  but  it 
is  also,  as  a  rule,  harder  to  digest  (compare  with  page  75).  These  state- 
ments were  substantiated  by  Nothwang,  who  further  established  that  in 
boiling  and  stewing,  pickled  meat  also  loses  extractive  ingredients  and 
phosphoric  acid. 

(d)  The  increase  of  weight  of  meat  in  pickling  also  depends  on  the 
method  of  procedure.     In  pickling  in  brine,  beef  gained  9.4  per  cent,  after 
3  weeks,  and  after  3  months  13  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight  (Polen- 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  89 

ske).  The  absorption  of  salts  after  14  days'  pickling  of  beef  at  4  degrees 
amounted  to  an  average  of  8.35  per  cent,  of  saltpeter  and  15.69  per  cent. 
of  common  salt  (Kuschel). 

The  influence  of  pickling  on  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  has  formerly  been 
overestimated.  Although  in  accordance  with  Forster's  investigations,  cultures  of 
anthrax  bacilli  under  the  influence  of  common  salt  are  destroyed  in  from  18  to  24 
hours,  cultures  containing  spores  retain  their  virulence  for  months.  Tubercle  bacilli 
retained  their  infectivity  for  18  days  in  pickled  pieces  of  organs,  and  cultures 
sprinkled  over  with  common  salt  remained  virulent  for  2  months.  Bacillus  morbi- 
ficans  bovis  and  bacillus  enteritidis  were,  according  to  Stadler,  destroyed  in  con- 
centrated salt  solution  only  after  3  and  4l/2  weeks.  Cultures  of  the  bacillus  of 
swine  erysipelas  are  only  slowly  killed  through  salt  in  substance,  but  somewhat 
more  quickly  by  concentrated  salt  solution.  Brine  exceeds  both  the  former  in  its 
bactericidal  action,  and  it  destroys  the  erysipelas  organisms  in  about  8  days.  Still 
it  was  possible  to  demonstrate  virulent  erysipelas  bacilli  in  the  meat  affected  with 
erysipelas  after  being  soaked  in  brine  for  about  7  weeks.  Pickled  meat  contains 
even  after  4  months,  virulent  erysipelas  bacilli  (Stadie).  The  cultures  of  pyogenic 
staphylococci  and  streptococci  acted  in  the  same  manner.  Animal  parasites,  if  pres- 
ent in  the  meat  (cysticercus,  trichinae),  are  positively  killed  in  thorough  pickling  of 
the  meat. 

2.     Preservation  with  Boracic  Acid 

Although  the  preservative  action  of  boracic  acid  (BO3H3)  and  its  salt  is  not 
great,  as  they  act  only  in  checking  the  development  of  bacteria,  yet  they  may  pre- 
vent infection  and  decomposition,  and  keep  fresh  meat  in  its  natural  color.  Therefore 
preservatives  containing  boracic  acid  have  been  used  in  the  meat  industry  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  For  many  meat  products  boracic  acid  acts  to  some  extent  as  a 
substance  to  increase  their  weight  through  an  increase  of  their  water  contents. 

The  preservative  salts  containing  borax  were  placed  on  the  market  under 
various  names.  The  best  known  are :  Barmenit  (common  salt  and  sodium  chloro- 
borate)  ;  [sodium  chloroborate  is  sodiumborate  combined  with  chlorin]  ;  double  and 
triple  preserving  salt  (boracic  acid,  saltpeter,  common  salt,  Glauber's  salt)  ;  boro- 
glyceride  (a  product  containing  about  60  per  cent,  glycerine  and  about  40  per  cent, 
boracic  acid). 

The  injurious  effect  of  boracic  acid  and  its  salt  on  the  human  system  has  been 
argued  for  many  years.  In  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  it  was  decided  that  the 
use  of  boracic  acid  and  its  salt  in  the  preservation  of  meat  foods  is  prohibited  in 
Germany  on  the  ground  of  the  Imperial  Decree  of  February  16,  1902,  in  connection 
with  the  publication  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  of  February  18,  1902.  [Their  use  is 
also  prohibited  in  the  United  States  (see  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  22,  sec- 
tion i).] 

3,     Preservation  with  Sulphurous  Acid 

The  salts  of  sulphurous  acid  and  especially  the  sulphites,  are  brought  into  trade 
under  the  name  of  preservative  salts,  the  acid  or  primary  calcium  sulphite  (SO3H2) 
Ca,  or  acid  potassium  and  sodium  sulphite  (so-called  bisulphite)  SO3HK  and 
SO3HNa,  or  also  neutral  sodium  sulphite  SO3Na2  mixed  with  common  salt, 
Glauber's  salt,  sugar,  etc.  As  already  indicated,  sulphurous  acid  salts  are  not  so 
much  conserving  substances  for  meat  as  they  are  for  the  preservation  of  muscle 


90      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

coloring  matter.  Therefore  they  were  principally  employed  for  the  preservation  of 
the  fresh  meat  color  on  the  surface  of  pieces  of  meat,  and  especially  for  the  preven- 
tion of  chopped  (ground)  meat  from  turning  gray.  The  action  of  the  sulphites  in 
preventing  putrefaction  is  only  slight,  so  that  putrefaction  may  develop  in  meat  con- 
taining sulphites.  But  as  the  initial  putrefaction  is  hidden  by  the  redness  of  the 
muscle  coloring  matter,  the  use  of  these  preserving  salts  in  connection  with  the 
meat  trade  leads  not  only  to  deceptions  regarding  the  freshness  of  the  same,  but 
also  to  the  consumption  of  meat  which  might  have  obtained  injurious  properties 
through  putrefaction. 

The  difference  of  opinions  regarding  the  immediate  influence  of  sulphites  on 
the  health  of  human  beings  was  decided  against  the  sulphites  in  the  German  Empire 
by  prohibiting  the  addition  of  these  substances  to  meat  products  in  accordance  with 
the  Imperial  Decree  of  February  16,  1902,  in  connection  with  the  publication  of  the 
Imperial  Chancellor  of  February  18,  1902.  [Sulphites  have  also  been  prohibited  in 
the  United  States  in  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Reg.  22,  sect.  I.] 

Regarding  the  test  of  meat  for  sulphites    see  page  342. 

4,     Other  Chemical  Conserving  Substances 

Other  chemical  conserving  substances,  such  as  salicylic  acid,  sodium  sili- 
cofluoride,  ammonium  acetate,  sodium  acetate,  formaldehyde,  lactic  acid,  glycerine 
and  others  have  been  tried  in  an  experimental  way  for  the  conservation  of  meats, 
but  they  have  not  attained  any  practical  importance.  Of  the  above  conserving  sub- 
stances the  following  are  prohibited  from  use  in  connection  with  the  preparation 
of  meat  in  the  German  Empire :  Formaldehyde,  alkalies  and  alkaline  earth  hydrox- 
ides and  carbonates,  fluorhydrogen  and  its  salts,  salicylic  acid  and  its  combinations, 
and  chlorine  acid  salts. 

[The  use  of  chemical  preservatives  in  the  preparation  and  preservation  of  meat 
and  meat-food  products  with  the  exception  of  common  salt  and  saltpeter  is  pro- 
hibited in  the  United  States,  and  the  measures  governing  the  same  are  contained  in 
B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  22.] 

The  bactericidal  action  of  acetic  acid  is  utilized  in  the  Deichstetter-Emmerich 
method  (see  page  79)  for  keeping  meat  fresh.  The  animal  is  slaughtered,  and  clean- 
liness is  observed  as  much  as  possible ;  then  the  large  blood  vessels  are  infused  with  • 
diluted  acetic  acid,  and  the  surface  of  the  meat  is  sprayed  with  acetic  acid.  The 
keeping  of  the  meat  has  to  be  carried  out  as  described  on  page  79.  This  method 
which  proves  an  undeniable  success  if  carefully  executed,  is,  however,  a  failure 
in  large  practice,  due  to  the  frequent  unreliability  of  persons  intrusted  with 
the  work. 

5,     Conservation  by  Smoking 

The  preparation  of  meat  products  for  keeping  under  the  preserving 
influence  of  smoke  (smoked  products,  ham,  bacon,  smoked  meat,  pickled 
smoked  meat),  has  been  known  since  the  oldest  times.  Only  such  meat 
is  adapted  for  preservation  with  smoke,  however,  as  contains  a  compara- 
tively small  quantity  of  water  (pickled  meat),  or  is  of  such  consistency 
that  the  latter  is  readily  diminished  in  the  smoking  and  makes  an  easy 
penetration  of  the  smoke  possible  (sausages).  There  is  also  meat  sub- 
jected to  smoking  not  so  much  for  preservation  as  for  its  penetration  by 
the  burning  substances  of  the  smoke  to  make  the  meat  more  palatable. 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  91 

The  application  of  smoke  consists  in  the  development  of  proper 
smoke,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by  a  slow  burning  of  wood  in  the 
form  of  sawdust.  Of  the  latter  hard  woods,  and  especially  juniper  bush, 
furnishes  the  best  smoke,  while  the  burning  of  pine  wood  is  useless  for 
smoking  purposes  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  turpentine  which  it 
contains.  The  smoking  process  may  be  carried  out  as  slow  or  as  forced 
smoking.  In  the  slow  smoking  the  meat  is  kept  for  days  and  weeks  in  a 
room  of  20°-25°  C,  the  air  of  which  is  impregnated  with  smoke  (smoking 
room),  while  in  the  forced  or  hot  smoking  the  products  (fish,  sausages), 
are  exposed  only  a  short  time  to  the  smoke  at  7o°-ioo°  C.  Besides  there 
is  also  a  so-called  artificial  or  quick  smoking,  in  which  the  meat  or  sausage 
is  dipped  into  a  mixture  of  pyroligneous  acid,  water,  and  juniper  oil,  or 
the  meat  is  covered  with  the  same  and  then  dried  in  an  airy  place.  Also 
decoctions  of  shining  soot  which  is  formed  in  the  burning  of  wood  with 
or  without  the  addition  of  salt  is  supposed  to  be  employed  for  applying 
to  meat  products.  With  both  methods,  however,  it  is  not  aimed  to  con- 
serve the  meat  preparations,  but  to  impart  to  them  a  smoky  taste. 

The  conserving  effect  of  smoking  on  meat  rests  upon  the  previously 
mentioned  extraction  of  water  and  the  penetration  of  the  meat  with  gases 
and  fumes  of  the  smoke,  which  are  substances  preventing  putrefaction. 
Among  these  are  the  tar  products  and  hydrocarbons  soluble  in  water ; 
also  acetic  acid,  creosote,  phenol,  cresol,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  etc. 

Concerning  the  action  of  smoking  on  microorganisms,  the  investigations  of 
Ben,  Serafini,  and  Ungaro  showed  that  even  pathogenic  germs  are  destroyed  in  a 
short  time  if  they  are  easily  reached  by  the  smoke.  In  the  smoking  of  infected 
meat  it  has  to  be  considered,  however,  that  there  soon  forms  on  the  surface  a  coagu- 
lated layer  which  makes  the  penetration  of  the  smoke  more  difficult.  Therefore 
the  germs  contained  on  the  inside  of  large  pieces  of  meat  may  only  with  difficulty 
be  destroyed.  And  this  is  also  influenced  by  the  water  content  of  the  meat,  inas- 
much as  the  water  prevents  the  penetration  of  the  smoke.  The  bacilli  of  hog  erysip- 
elas are  destroyed  in  two  weeks'  continual  and  intensive  smoking  of  pickled  meat, 
if  the  pieces  do  not  exceed  2.5  kg.  in  weight  (Stadie). 

5,    Various  Food  Preparations  Derived  from  Food  Animals 

A,     Meat  Extract 

Although  the  meat  extract  is  not  a  food  but  a  delicacy  of  animal  origin,  still,  on 
account  of  its  extensive  consumption,  it  should  be  briefly  mentioned  here.  The 
meat  extract  of  which  the  principal  brand  is  that  discovered  by  Pettenkofer,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Liebig,  is  almost  exclusively  prepared  in  America  from  lean  beef, 
which  is  chopped  by  machine  and  is  boiled  with  little  water  under  high  steam  pres- 
sure in  an  apparatus.  After  the  separation  of  fat,  coagulated  albumin,  and  fibrin,  the 
filtered  meat  broth  is  concentrated  in  a  vacuum,  and  is  then  again  boiled  down  in 
open  kettles  which  are  supplied  with  stirring  apparatuses  until  ?  thick  pap  is  formed, 
which  is  filled  into  jars;  30-32  kg.  of  lean  meat  gives  about  I  kg.  of  meat  extract. 


92      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

The  extracted  meat  fibers  are  dried  and  ground  and  shipped  to  Europe  as  American 
meat  flour,  where  it  is  utilized  for  food  purposes,  and  recently  also  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  albumen. 

According  to  Stutzer,  meat  extract  contains  about  60  per  cent  of  organic  sub- 
stances, 20  per  cent,  salt,  and  20  per  cent,  of  water.  The  organic  substances  consist 
principally  of  so-called  meat  bases — creatin,  creatinin,  sarkin,  xanthin,  inosinacid, 
karnosin,  aminoacid  (Baur  &  Barschall)  and  others,  as  well  as  small  quantities  of 
phosphocarnic  acid  and  lactic  acid.  Glycogen  is  also  generally  present.  The 
presence  of  succinic  acid  in  the  meat  extract  cannot  be  considered  as  a  positive  indi- 
cation of  putrefaction.  The  salts  consist  c\  about  two-thirds  of  potassium  phosphate. 

Due  to  this  composition,  the  meat  extract  appears  as  a  spicy  delicacy  which 
stimulates  the  nerves  of  taste,  smell,  and  digestion. 

The  liquid  meat  extracts  which  are  brought  into  trade  as  Cibil's,  Koch's,  Maggi's 
extracts,  contain  much  less  organic  substances  than  Liebig's  and  Kammerich's  meat 
extract. 

[Meat  extract  is  also  prepared  in  the  United  States  to  a  large  extent  from  the 
meat  broth  obtained  from  the  boiling  of  meats  for  canning  purposes.  This  is  boiled 
down  and  concentrated  in  a  vacuum  to  a  desired  consistency,  and  is  then  drawn  off 
into  various  sized  containers.] 

B,    Peptones 

The  efforts  of  chemistry  to  convert  the  albumens  of  meat  into  soluble  prepara- 
tions which  may  be  absorbed  without  any  further  change  in  the  body  by  the  digestive 
apparatus  lead  to  the  preparation  of  peptones. 

According  to  Stutzer,  there  may  be  distinguished  pepsin  peptones  and  pancreatic 
peptones.  The  preparation  of  the  latter  has  ceased-  at  the  present  time.  The  first 
is  prepared  by  subjecting  meat  to  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  pepsin  (extract  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach)  and  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  known  physio- 
logical dilution ;  the  solution  is  then  filtered,  is  accurately  neutralized  with  a  small 
quantity  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  finally  steamed  in  vacuum.  The  peptone  thus 
prepared,  contains  albumose  as  the  principal  ingredient. 

The  opinions  regarding  the  nutritive  value  of  peptones  are  very  different,  and 
this  is  readily  explainable,  as  the  various  trade  preparations  contain  a  greatly  chang- 
ing content  of  true  peptones.  Thus  Stutzer  found  in  a  fluid  meat  peptone  prepara- 
tion, 12-15  per  cent.  peptone=i.pi  per  cent,  nitrogen;  and  in  another,  dry  fibrin 
peptone  81  per  cent.=i4.56  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

C,     Fat  and  Tallow 

The  fats  of  food  animals,  inasmuch  as  they  are  not  sold  in  the  raw 
state,  or  as  prepared  meat  products  (bacon,  etc.),  are  rendered  to  serve 
for  human  food,  and  the  connective  tissue  constituents  of  the  fat  tissue 
are  separated  from  it  in  the  form  of  cracklings.  The  rendered  hog  fat, 
under  the  name  of  lard,  forms  as  cooking  fat,  an  important  trade  article, 
which  is  principally  shipped  from  America.  The  freshly  rendered  beef 
tallow  is  also  sold  directly  for  food  purposes.  Larger  quantities  of  it  are 
utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarin  (olein),  while  the  super- 
fluous quantities  of  tallow  are  chiefly  used  for  industrial  purposes. 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  93 

The  lard  forms  a  fine,  milk-white  homogeneous  mass  of  oleaceous 
consistence  and  peculiar  agreeable  odor  and  taste.  The  color  of  the 
lard  is  sometimes  artificially  improved  by  the  addition  of  borax,  and  its 
water  content  may  be  artificially  increased  by  mixing  alum  or  calcium 
hydrate  with  the  lard. 

While  such  manipulations,  as  well  as  adulterations  of  lard,  as  a  rule, 
occur  only  rarely  in  Germany,  they  were  formerly  carried  out  in  Amer- 
ica, with  all  sorts  of  varieties  of  fats.  The  most  frequent  manipulation  is 
the  adulteration  with  cotton-seed  oil.  But  there  are  also  varieties  of  lard 
which  do  not  contain  the  least  portion  of  hog  fat,  but  are  prepared  from 
beef  fat,  mutton  fat,  cotton-seed  oil,  cotton-seed  stearin,  and  other  kinds 
of  fats,  pignut  oil,  oil  of  sesame,  palm-seed  oil,  and  cocoanut  oil.  In  the 
trade  the  adulterated  lard  is  given  the  most  varied  names,  as  Cottolene, 
Kotosuet,  Refined  Lard,  Pure  Refined  Lard,  Pure  Refined  Family  Lard, 
Fairbanks'  Lard,  Frying  Lard,  Hamburg  City  Lard,  etc. — on  the  other 
hand,  the  following  American  lards  are  unadulterated — Neutral  Lard, 
Leaf  Lard,  Choice  Kettle-rendered  Lard  (choice  lard),  and  Prime  Steam 
Lard. 

[In  accordance  with  the  Regulations  of  April  i,  1908,  governing  the 
meat  inspection  in  the  United  States,  all  products  sold  under  the  trade 
name  of  lard  must  consist  of  hog  fat,  as  the  said  regulations  provide  that 
the  true  name  must  be  given  to  all  products,  and  that  false  or  deceptive 
names  of  meat  and  meat- food  products  are  prohibited.  Further,  it  is 
provided  that  the  meat-food  products  which  contain  substances  which 
are  added  to  adulterate  the  same  must  bear  a  label  stating  that  such  sub- 
stances have  been  added.  (See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  18,  sec- 
tions 1-14.)] 

According  to  the  German  Imperial  law  of  June  15,  1897,  regarding 
the  traffic  with  butter,  cheese,  lard,  and  their  substitutions,  all  prepara- 
tions resembling  lard,  the  fat  content  of  which  does  not  consist  of  hog  fat, 
must  be  declared  as  artificial  food  fat. 

The  so-called  sausage  fat,  known  principally  in  the  retail  trade,  is 
obtained  from  the  skimmings  of  the  sausage  broth  in  which  the  sausages 
are  cooked.  It  is  a  mixed  fat  containing  a  considerable  amount  of  water 
of  a  gray  to  grayish-green  color,  with  a  spicy  sausage  taste  (principally 
like  marjoram),  and  which  contains  small  meat  particles  and  unmelted 
pieces  of  fat.  It  spoils  very  easily. 

Lender  the  term  margarin,  formerly  also  called  artificial  butter,  sweet 
cream  butterine,  Holland  butter,  Holburko,  etc.,  is  understood  in  accord- 
ance with  the  German  Imperial  law  of  June  15,  1897,  all  those  prepara- 
tions which  resemble  cow  butter  or  butter  fat,  and  which  do  not  entirely 
originate  from  milk.  Margarin  was  first  prepared  by  the  French  chemist, 
Mege-Mouries,  who,  in  1869,  made  public  the  process  of  its  preparation, 


94      Chap.  III.     Production,  Preparation,  and  Conservation  of  Meat 

which  was  practically  the  same  as  the  present  method,  with  the  exception 
of  some  slight  changes.  The  fresh  beef  fat  is  washed,  macerated,  and 
after  adding  water,  potash  and  stomach  mucous  membrane,  it  is  heated  to 
about  50°  C,  causing  the  liquid  fat  to  accumulate  on  the  surface.  The 
fat — the  so-called  "Premier  jus" — is  then  taken  off,  is  clarified,  and  solidi- 
fied at  25°,  by  which  the  tristearin  separates  in  crystals,  while  the  triolein 
and  tripalmitin,  which  together  are  also  called  oleomargarin  (in  the 
United  States,  oleo  oil),  remain  fluid  and  are  separated  from  the  first  by 
pressing.  To  every  50  kg.  of  oleomargarin  25  1.  of  cows'  milk  and  25  1. 
of  water,  with  a  small  quantity  of  butter  coloring,  is  mixed,  and  the  mass 
is  then  churned.  Thus  the  fat  mixture  so  obtained  gives,  after  washing 
and  salting,  a  fat  which  tastes  like  butter.  In  accordance  with  the  Impe- 
rial law,  10  per  cent,  of  sesame  oil  must  be  added  in  order  that  the  mar- 
garin  itself,  as  well  as  possible  mixtures  with  butter,  may  be  easily 
detected  chemically. 

Ii]  margarin  is  cleanly  prepared  from  good  fat,  and  is  sold  under 
declaration,  no  objection  can  be  made  against  it  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point. According  to  Jolle's  experiments  with  dogs,  margarin  is  just  as 
profitably  utilized  in  the  intestines  as  butter ;  and  Adolph  Mayer,  as  well 
as  Kienzl,  found  in  the  comparative  experiments  on  men  only  very  slight 
differences  in  favor  of  butter.  Tubercle  bacilli  have  been  found  in  mar- 
garin the  same  as  in  butter  (Morgenroth). 

[The  preparation  of  oleo  oil,  which  is  a  product  of  beef  fat,  com- 
prises an  important  industry  in  the  largest  packing  houses  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  the  principal  ingredient  of  butterine.  The  largest  part  of 
oleo  oil  manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  exported  to  Europe,  princi- 
pally to  Holland  and  Germany,  where  it  is  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of 
butterine.  There  is  at  the  present  time  only  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  butterine  manufactured  in  the  United  States,  the  demand  for  that 
product  being  somewhat  limited. 

In  accordance  with  an  act  of  Congress,  butterine  must  be  sold  in  the 
United  States  under  declaration,  and  no  coloring  is  permitted  to  be  used 
in  its  preparat;on,  except  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy  license.] 

D,     Caviar  and  Smoked  Salmon 

The  preservation  of  fish  and  crustaceans,  which  are  conserved  by  salting, 
smoking,  drying,  inclosing  in  air-tight  cans,  pickling,  etc.,  is  of  very  little  importance 
for  the  general  purpose  of  the  subject  under  consideration.  Only  the  caviar,  which,  on 
account  of  its  high  nutritive  value,  its  easy  digestibility,  and  its  palatability,  forms 
a  widely  distributed  food  and  delicacy,  and  smoked  salmon,  on  account  of  its  various 
trade  preparations,  will  be  briefly  considered  here. 

Caviar  is  the  salted  spawn  of  large  varieties  of  sturgeons.  According  to  Niebel, 
it  is  obtained  principally  in  Russia,  on  the  lower  courses  of  the  Wolga,  Don,  in  the 
Ural,  Aral  sea,  and  Caspian  sea;  in  Germany,  on  the  East  sea.  North  sea,  and  on 


Conserving  of  the  Meat  95 

the  lower  course  of  the  Elb ;  in  America,  in  the  State  of  Oregon,  and  in  the  Terri- 
tory of  Alaska.  It  is  distinguished  as  fluid  or  granular,  and  pressed  caviar.  The 
first,  sprinkled  with  common  salt,  is  passed  through  a  sieve  for  the  separation  of  the 
adhering  membranes,  and  is  packed  into  barrels.  The  pressed  caviar  consists  of 
eggs  of  an  inferior  quality,  which  are  placed  into  brine,  and  then  pressed  out  after 
sufficient  absorption  has  taken  place. 

Relative  to  the  origin  and  quality,  it  is  distinguished  as  Russian,  American,  and 
Elb  caviar.  The  eggs  of  the  most  valuable — the  Russian  caviar — are  dark  gray  to 
black  in  color,  and  have  an  average  diameter  of  3.55  mm. ;  besides,  they  are  free  of 
membranes  and  of  added  slimy  substances.  The  American  and  Elb  caviar  are  about 
the  same  in  quality.  The  eggs  of  the  former  are  only  2.5-3  mm.  in  diameter,  are 
blackish-gray  to  blackish-yellow,  are  softer  than  those  of  the  Russian  caviar,  and 
are  partly  injured.  In  the  Elb  caviar,  the  eggs  are  still  smaller  and  darker. 
According  to  Bischof,  there  is  also  sold  under  the  name  Elb  caviar,  a  decomposed 
American  caviar,  which  has  been  specially  preserved. 

So-called  red  caviar  is  prepared  in  Russia  from  the  eggs  of  various  fish,  and 
in  Germany  from  the  eggs  of  the  pike,  carp,  and  other  species. 

Regarding  the  chemical  composition  of  caviar,  according  to  Konig,  see  table, 
page  40.  Slightly  salted  caviar  does  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent,  salt,  while 
strongly  salted  caviar  has  up  to  10  per  cent.  salt.  According  to  Raebiger,  the  fol- 
lowing varieties  of  smoked  salmon  are  placed  on  the  market : 

(a)  American  salmon,  which  is  supposed  to  originate  from  the  Oncorhynchus 
quinnat.     Back  and   abdominal   lines   run   forward   almost   parallel.     Scales,   golden 
yellow  and  shiny.     Color  of  flesh,  pink  to  brick-red.     The  muscles  and  their  sur- 
rounding  connective    tissue    ("white    veins,"    in    business    language)    are    stronger 
developed  than  in  the  Rhein  salmon. 

(b)  The  Rhein,    Elb,   and   Weser   salmon   have   a   highly  arched  back  and  a 
body   compressed   on   the    sides.     Back   and    abdominal    lines    approach    each   other 
considerably  toward  the  head.     Scales  are  silver  white ;  toward  the  back  they  are 
blackish-brown  and  ovally  elongated.     Color  of  flesh,  pinkish-red  and  with  a  slight 
tinge  of  yellow.     They  have  a  heavy  cushion  of  white  fat. 

(c )  The  East  sea,  Wolga  and  Russian  salmon  have  a  long,  not  as  much  com- 
pressed body,  with  small  round  scales.     Meat  has  a  typical  salmon  color,  is  very  rich 
in  fat,  and  the  intramuscular  connective  tissue  is  loose  as  in  the  American  salmon. 

(d)  The  fish  known  in  the  trade  as  sea  salmon,  is  the  Merluccius  vulgaris. 
Its  meat  is  white  and  poor  in  fat. 

(e)  The  Fac.on   salmon  is  prepared  from  trimmings   which   are  pressed  into 
parchment  hulls.     It  may  be   recognized  by  the  absence  of  the  irregularity  in  the 
course  of  the  "veins." 


IV,  Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection 

of  the  United  States  Department 

of  Agriculture 

B.    A.    I.    ORDER    I5O 

Regulation  1,    Scope  of  Inspection 

Section  I.  All  slaughtering,  packing,  meat  canning,  salting,  rendering,  or  sim- 
ilar establishments,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  the  meat  or  meat  food  products 
of  which,  in  whole  or  in  part,  enter  into  interstate  or  foreign  commence,  shall  have 
inspection  under  these  regulations.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  exempt  from 
inspection  establishments  operated  by  farmers,  retail  butchers,  or  retail  dealers 
supplying  their  customers,  but  in  the  absence  of  such  exemption  inspection  is 
tequired. 

Section  2.  Branch  houses  of  official  establishments,  when  such  branch  houses 
are  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  and  slaughter  animals  or  process 
meat,  shall  be  considered  a  part  of  the  parent  house,  and  products  received  into 
such  branch  houses  or  sent  from  them  shall  be  subject  to  these  regulations,  and 
inspection  shall  be  maintained  therein. 

Regulation  2,     Organization  of  Force 

Section  i.  Paragraph  I.  All  permanent  employees  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture engaged  in  the  work  of  meat  inspection  are  appointed  upon  certification  of 
the  Civil  Service  Commission  that  they  have  passed  the  examination  prescribed  by 
that  Commission.  Promotions  in  all  classes  are  made  on  the  basis  of  efficiency, 
deportment,  and  length  of  service.  Such  employees  include: 

Paragraph  2.  Inspectors  in  Charge. — These  are  inspectors  assigned  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  to  supervise  official  work  at  each  official  station.  Such 
employees  report  directly  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  are 
chosen  by  reason  of  their  fitness  for  responsibility  as  determined  by  their  records 
in  the  service.  At  stations  where  slaughtering  is  conducted,  only  veterinary  inspec- 
tors are  placed  in  charge. 

Paragraph  3.  Veterinary  Inspectors. — All  applicants  examined  for  these  posi- 
tions must  be  graduates  of  recognized  veterinary  colleges  having  a  course  of  not 
less  than  three  years  leading  to  the  degree.  All  final  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem 
examinations  are  conducted  by  veterinarians.  At  some  stations  the  veterinarians  are 
assisted  in  making  preliminary  examinations  by  trained-  laymen  known  as  inspec- 
tors' assistants. 

Paragraph  4.  Traveling  Veterinary  Inspectors. — To  observe  the  conditions  of 
sanitation  of  the  establishments  at  the  various  stations,  note  the  processes  of  ante- 
mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection,  confer  with  and  instruct  inspectors  regarding 
it,  with  a  view  to  a  uniform  system  throughout  the  country,  and  to  report  these 
matters  to  the  Washington  office,  constitute  the  principal  duties  of  these  employees, 
96 


Interpretation  and  Definition  of  Words  and  Terms  97 

Paragraph  5.  Laboratory  Inspectors. — These  employees  possess  technical  train- 
ing in  microscopical  and  chemical  examination  of  meat  food  products,  and  their 
inspections  are  conducted  in  laboratories  located  at  various  slaughtering  centers. 
Pathological  laboratories  are  also  maintained,  to  which  diseased  specimens  may  be 
sent  when  necessary  for  diagnosis. 

Paragraph  6.  Meat  Inspectors. — These  employees  are  laymen,  experienced  in 
the  curing,  canning,  packing,  or  otherwise  preparing  of  meat;  they  supervise  that 
work  and  the  use  of  permitted  preservatives  described  in  Regulation  22. 

Paragraph  7.  Traveling  Meat  Inspectors. — These  employees  perform  a  service 
similar  to  that  required  of  traveling  veterinary  inspectors,  but  along  the  line  of  the 
preparation  and  handling  of  meat  products. 

Paragraph  8.  Inspectors'  Assistants. — These  employees  are  laymen,  who  are 
first  assigned  to  routine  duties  and  are  promoted  through  examination  to  higher 
duties,  such  as  assisting  in  conducting  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  examinations. 

Paragraph  9.  Patrolmen. — Patrolmen  are  employed  to  patrol  the  establishments 
at  night,  to  oversee  the  receipts  and  shipments  of  meat,  and  to  observe  any  opera- 
tions conducted  at  night.  They  consist  of  veterinarians,  inspectors'  assistants,  or 
meat  inspectors,  according  to  the  character  of  the  work  where  assigned. 

Paragraph  10.  Skilled  Laborers. — These  employees  supervise  the  marking  of 
meat  and  meat  containers,  and  perform  similar  work.  They  are  eligible  for  promo- 
tion only  through  examination. 

Regulation  3,     Interpretation  and  Definition  of  Words  and  Terms 

Wherever  in  these  regulations  the  following  words,  names,  or  terms  are  used 
they  shall  be  construed  as  follows: 

Section  I.  Official  Establishment. — This  term  shall  mean  any  slaughtering, 
meat-canning,  salting,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  at  which  inspection  is 
maintained  under  the  meat-inspection  law  approved  June  30,  1906  (34  Stat.,  674). 

Section  2.  Inspectors  and  Department  Employees. — These  terms  shall  mean, 
respectively,  inspectors  and  employees  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Section  3.  "Inspected  and  Passed." — This  phrase,  or  any  authorized  abbrevia- 
tion thereof,  shall  mean  that  the  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  and  meat  food 
products  so  marked  have  been  inspected  and  passed  for  food  under  these  regulations. 

Section  4.  Rendered  Into  Lard  or  Tallow. — This  phrase  shall  mean  that  the 
carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  and  meat  food  products  so  designated  are 
allowed  to  be  made  into  edible  lard  or  edible  tallow. 

Section  5.  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned." — This  phrase  shall  mean  that  the 
carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  and  meat  food  products  so  marked  are  unfit  for 
food  and  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes. 

Section  6.  Carcass. — This  word  shall  apply  to  the  carcass  of  an  animal  that 
has  been  killed  under  these  regulations,  and  shall  include  all  parts  which  are  to  be 
used  for  food. 

Section  /.  Primal  Parts  of  Carcasses. — This  phrase  shall  mean  the  usual  sec- 
tions or  cuts  of  the  dressed  carcass  commonly  known  in  the  trade,  such  as  sides, 
quarters,  shoulders,  hams,  backs,  bellies,  etc.,  and  beef  tongues,  beef  livers,  and  beef 
tails,  before  they  have  Jbeen  cut,  shredded,  or  otherwise  subdivided  preliminary  to 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  meat  food  products. 

Section  8.  Meat  Food  Products. — Paragraph  i.  A  meat  food  product,  within 
the  meaning  of  the  meat-inspection  act  and  of  these  regulations,  is  considered  to  be 
any  article  of  food  intended  for  human  use  which  is  derived  or  prepared  in  whole 
8 


98     Chap.  IV.     Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

or  in  part  from  any  edible  portion  of  the  carcass  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  if 
the  said  edible  portion  so  used  is  a  considerable  and  definite  portion  of  the  finished 
food. 

Paragraph  2.  Mixture. — A  mixture  of  which  meat  is  an  ingredient  will  not  be 
considered  a  meat  food  product  unless  the  meat  contained  therein  is  a  definite  and 
considerable  portion  of  the  said  mixture.  But  where  such  mixture  is  prepared 
in  a  part  of  an  official  establishment,  the  sanitation  of  that  part  of  the  establishment 
will  be  supervised  by  the  Department,  and  the  meat  or  meat  food  products  will  be 
inspected  before  it  enters  the  said  mixture.  The  mixture  shall  not  bear  the  meat- 
inspection  legend  or  any  simulation  thereof.  If  any  reference  is  made  to  Federal 
inspection  it  shall  be  in  the  following  form:  "The  meat  contained  herein  has  been 
inspected  and  passed  at  an  establishment  where  Federal  inspection  is  maintained." 
Mixtures,  such  as  mince-meats,  soups,  etc.,  which  come  under  this  description,  and 
which  are  not  officially  labeled,  are  allowed  in  interstate  and  foreign  commerce 
without  further  inspection,  and  without  certificates,  subject  to  the  provisions  and 
requirements  of  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  June  30,  1906,  and  the  regulations  made 
thereunder. 

Section  9.  Medical  Meat  Products. — Products,  such  as  meat  juice,  meat  extract, 
etc.,  which  are  intended  only  for  medicinal  purposes  and  are  advertised  only  to  the 
medical  profession,  are  not  considered  meat  food  products  within  the  meaning  of 
this  order. 

'Section  10.  Vinegar. — The  word  vinegar,  as  used  herein,  shall  mean  cider 
vinegar,  wine  vinegar,  malt  vinegar,  sugar  vinegar,  glucose  vinegar,  or  spirit  vinegar. 

Regulation  4.     Inspection  or  Exemption 

Section  i.  The  proprietor  or  operator  of  each  slaughtering,  packing,  meat- 
canning,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  engaged  in  the  slaughtering  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  or  in  the  packing,  canning,  or  other  preparation  of  any  meat 
food  product  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  shall  make  application  to  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  inspection  or  for  exemption  from  inspection,  except  in 
cases  where  inspection  or  exemption  is  already  in  effect.  In  case  of  change  of 
ownership  or  change  of  location  of  an  establishment  already  having  inspection,  a 
new  application  shall  be  made.  Exemption  under  the  law  can  be  given  only  to 
establishments  operated  by  retail  butchers  and  retail  dealers.  Such  application  shall 
be  in  writing  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  shall 
state  the  location  of  the  establishment,  and  shall  be  made  on  blanks  which  will  be 
furnished  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  upon  request. 

Section  2.  Inspection  shall  not  be  begun  if  an  establishment  is  not  in  a  sanitary 
condition,  nor  unless  the  establishment  provides  and  guarantees  to  maintain  adequate 
facilities  for  conducting  such  inspection. 

Section  3.  If,  in  the  judgment  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  retail 
butcher  or  retail  dealer  who  is  operating  an  establishment  and  engaged  in  supplying 
his  customers  through  the  medium  of  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  is  entitled 
to  exemption  from  Federal  inspection,  a  numbered  certificate  of  exemption  will  be 
furnished  to  the  applicant  for  use  with  transportation  companies  and  other  com- 
panies and  persons  in  securing  the  movement  of  his  products.  If  an  establishment, 
including  both  market  and  slaughterhouse  of  such  retail  butcher  or  dealer,  is  not  in 
a  sanitary  condition,  a  certificate  of  exemption  will  not  be  issued. 

Section  4.  Exempted  establishments  shall  be  open  to  the  inspectors  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  shall  be  maintained  in  a  clean  condition,  and  shall  con- 


Official  Number,  etc.  99 

form  to  the  same  regulations  as  govern  official  establishments  in  regard  to  labeling, 
dyes,  chemicals,  and  preservatives,  and  unsound,  unwholesome,  and  unfit  meat. 

Regulation  5,     Official  Number 

Section  i.  Paragraph  I.  When  inspection  is  eslablished  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture will  give  the  establishment  a  number,  and  this  number  shall  be  used  to  mark 
the  meat  and  meat  food  products  of  the  establishment  as  hereafter  prescribed. 

Paragraph  2.  Two  or  more  official  establishments  under  the  same  ownership  or 
control  may  use  the  same  establishment  number,  provided  a  serial  letter  is  added  in 
each  case  to  designate  the  establishment  and  to  enable  its  product  to  be  identified. 

Paragraph  3.  Persons,  firms,  or  corporations  owning  subsidiary  companies  hav- 
ing legal  entity  may  use  the  names  of  such  companies,  provided  application  has  been 
made  for  inspection  and  it  has  been  granted,  the  inspection  legend  in  such  case  to 
bear  the  official  establishment  number  of  the  parent  firm,  or  corporation. 

Paragraph  4.  Each  official  establishment  must  be  separate  and  distinct  from 
any  other  establishment  or  department  in  which  animal  products  are  handled  at 
which  inspection  is  not  maintained.  When  two  or  more  companies  prepare  their 
products  in  the  same  official  establishment  they  must  obtain  inspection  under  the 
same  number.  The  name  of  the  distributer  may  appear  upon  the  label- 
Regulation  6,  Assignment  of  Inspectors,  etc* 

Section  i.  The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  will  designate  an 
inspector  to  take  charge  of  the  inspection  at  each  official  establishment,  and  will 
assign  to  said  inspector  such  assistants  as  may  be  necessary. 

Section  2.  For  the  purpose  of  enforcing  the  law  and  regulations  all  employees 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  shall  have  access  at  all  times,  by  day  or  night, 
whether  the  establishment  be  operated  or  not,  to  every  part  of  the  establishment. 

Section  3.  Each  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  working  under 
these  regulations  will  be  furnished  with  a  numbered  badge,  which  he  shall  wear  over 
the  left  breast  on  the  outer  clothing  while  in  the  performance  of  his  official  duties, 
and  which  shall  not  be  allowed  to  leave  his  possession.  This  official  badge  shall  be 
sufficient  identification  to  entitle  him  to  admittance  at  all  regular  entrances  and  to 
all  parts  of  the  establishment  and  premises. 

Section  4.  Office  room,  including  light  and  heat,  shall  be  provided  by  proprie- 
tors of  establishments,  rent  free,  for  the  exclusive  use,  for  official  purposes,  of  the 
inspectors  and  other  employees  of  the  Department  assigned  thereto.  The  room  or 
rooms  set  apart  for  this  purpose  must  be  properly  ventilated,  conveniently  located, 
and  provided  with  lockers  suitable  for  the  protection  and  storage  of  such  supplies 
as  may  be  required ;  all  to  meet  the  approval  of  the  inspector  in  charge. 

Regulation  1.     All  Carcasses  and  Products  Inspected 

Section  i.  All  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  slaughtered  at  an  official  establish- 
ment, and  all  meat  and  meat  food  products  prepared  therein,  shall  be  inspected,  han- 
dled, prepared,  and  marked  as  required  by  these  regulations. 

Regulation  8.     Notice  of  Daily  Operations,  etc. 

Section  i.  The  manager  of  each  official  establishment  shall  inform  the  inspector 
in  charge,  or  his  assistant,  when  work  has  been  concluded  for  the  day,  and  of  the 
day  and  hour  when  work  will  be  resumed.  Under  no  circumstances  shall  any 


ioo     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

department  of  an  establishment  be  operated  except  under  the  supervision  of  an 
employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  All  slaughtering  of  animals  and  the 
preparation  of  meat  and  meat  food  products  shall  be  done  within  reasonable  hours, 
and  with  reasonable  speed,  the  facilities  of  the  establishment  being  considered. 

Section  2.  Where  one  inspector  is  detailed  to  conduct  the  work  at  two  or 
more  small  establishments  where  few  animals  are  slaughtered,  or  where  but  a  small 
quantity  of  meat  or  meat  food  products  is  prepared,  the  inspector  in  charge  may 
designate  the  hours  for  work. 

Section  3.  No  work  shall  be  performed  at  official  establishments  during  any  day 
on  which  such  work  is  prohibited  by  the  law  of  the  State  or  Territory  in  which  the 
establishment  is  located.  However,  the  Department  will  require  that  it  be  judicially 
determined  that  such  work  is  prohibited  by  the  State  law. 

Regulation  9,     Bribery 

Section  i.  It  is  a  felony,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  for  any  person, 
firm,  or  corporation  to  give,  pay,  or  offer,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  any  Department 
employee  authorized  to  perform  any  duty  under  these  regulations  any  money  or 
other  thing  of  value  with  intent  to  influence  said  employee  in  the  discharge  of  his 
duty  under  these  regulations.  It  is  also  a  felony,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprison- 
ment, for  any  Department  employee  engaged  in  the  performance  of  duty  under 
these  regulations  to  receive  or  accept  from  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged 
in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any  gift,  money,  or  other  thing  of  value  given  with 
and  purpose  or  intent  whatsoever. 

Regulation  10,     Sanitation 

Section  i.  After  the  receipt  of  an  application  for  inspection  or  exemption  an 
examination  of  the  establishment  and  premises  will  be  .made  and  the  requirements 
for  sanitation  and  the  necessary  facilities  for  inspection  will  be  specified. 

Section  2.  Plans  and  specifications,  in  duplicate,  of  plants  for  which  applica- 
tion for  inspection  is  made,  also  of  new  plants  and  plants  to  be  remodeled,  should 
be  submitted  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Section  3.  Official  establishments  and  establishments  to  which  certificates  of 
exemption  have  been  issued  shall  be  suitably  lighted  and  ventilated  and  maintained 
in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  shall  be  provided  with  efficient  drainage,  having  properly 
trapped  or  other  approved  sewer  connections.  Rooms  in  which  inspection  is  car- 
ried on  shall,  by  heating  or  other  means,  be  kept  reasonably  free  from  steam  and 
other  vapors,  in  order  that  proper  inspection  can  be  made.  All  work  in  such  estab- 
lishments shall  be  performed  in  a  cleanly  and  sanitary  manner. 

Section  4.  Ceilings,  walls,  pillars,  partitions,  etc.,  shall  be  kept  in  a  sanitary 
condition,  and  when  necessary  they  shall  be  washed,  scraped,  painted,  or  otherwise 
treated  as  required.  Where  floors  or  other  parts  of  a  building  or  tables  or  other 
parts  of  the  equipment,  are  so  old  or  in  such  poor  condition  that  they  cannot  be 
readily  made  sanitary,  they  shall  be  removed  and  replaced  by  suitable  materials. 
All  floors  upon  which  meats  are  piled  during  the  process  of  curing  shall  be  so  con- 
structed that  they  can  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition,  and  all  meat  piled 
upon  floors  shall  be  suitably  protected  from  trucks,  etc.  Walks  and  platforms  or 
approaches  leading  into  establishments  shall  be  kept  clean  to  prevent  tracking  dirt 
into  the  same. 


Sanitation  101 

Section  5.  All  trucks,  trays,  and  other  receptacles,  all  chutes,  platforms,  racks, 
tables,  etc.,  and  all  knives,  saws,  cleavers,  and  other  tools,  and  all  utensils,  machinery, 
and  vehicles  used  in  moving,  handling,  cutting,  chopping,  mixing,  canning,  or  other 
processes  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  using. 

Section  6.  Managers  of  establishments  must  require  employees  to  be  cleanly. 
The  aprons,  smocks,  or  other  outer  clothing  worn  by  employees  who  handle  meat  or 
meat  food  products  shall  be  of  a  material  that  is  readily  cleansed  and  made  sanitary, 
and  only  clean  garments  shall  be  worn.  Persons  who  handle  meat  or  meat  food 
products  shall  be  required  to  keep  their  hands  clean,  and  they  shall  be  required  also 
to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  cleanliness  of  their  boots  or  shoes. 

Section  7.  Persons  affected  with  tuberculosis  or  any  other  communicable  dis- 
ease shall  not  be  employed  in  any  of  the  departments  of  establishments  where  car- 
casses are  dressed,  meat  is  handled,  or  meat  food  products  are  prepared;  and  any 
employee  of  such  establishment  who  may  be  suspected  of  being  so  affected  shall  be 
reported  by  the  inspector  in  charge  to  the  manager  of  the  establishment  and  to  the 
Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Section  8.  All  water-closets,  toilet  rcoms,  and  dressing  rooms  shall  be  entirely 
separated  from  compartments  in  which  carcasses  are  dressed  or  meat  or  meat  food 
products  are  cured,  stored,  packed,  handled,  or  prepared.  Where  such  rooms  open 
into  compartments  in  which  meat  or  meat  food  products  are  handled  they  must, 
when  this  is  considered  necessary,  be  provided  with  properly  ventilated  vestibules 
and  with  automatically  closing  doors.  They  shall  be  conveniently  located,  sufficient 
in  number,  ample  in  size,  and  fitted  with  modern  lavatory  accommodations,  includ- 
ing toilet  paper,  soap,  running  hot  and  cold  water,  towels,  etc.  They  shall  be  prop- 
erly lighted,  suitably  ventilated,  and  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition.  Convenient  and 
sanitary  urinals  shall  be  provided;  and  washstands,  near  at  hand,  shall  also  be 
provided. 

Section  9.  The  rooms  or  compartments  in  which  meat  or  meat  food  products 
are  prepared,  cured,  stored,  packed,  or  otherwise  handled  shall  be  free  from  odors 
from  toilet  rooms,  catch  basins,  casing  departments,  tank  rooms,  hide  cellars,  etc., 
and  shall  be  kept  free  from  flies  and  other  vermin  by  screening,  or  other  methods. 
All  rooms  or  compartments  shall  be  provided  with  cuspidors  of  such  shape  as  not 
readily  to  be  upset  and  of  such  material  and  construction  as  to  be  readily  disinfected, 
and  employees  who  expectorate  shall  be  required  to  use  them. 

Section  10.  The  feeding  of  hogs  or  other  animals  on  the  refuse  of  slaughter- 
houses shall  not  be  permitted  on  the  premises  of  an  exempted  establishment  or  an 
official  establishment,  and  no  use  incompatible  with  proper  sanitation  shall  be  made 
of  any  part  of  the  premises  on  which  such  establishment  is  located.  All  yards, 
fences,  pens,  chutes,  alleys,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  premises  of  such  establishments, 
whether  they  are  used  or  not,  shall  be  maintained  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  no 
nuisance  shall  be  allowed  in  the  establishment  or  on  its  premises. 

Section  n.  Butchers  who  dress  or  handle  diseased  carcasses  or  parts  shall 
cleanse  their  han4s  of  all  grease  and  then  immerse  them  in  a  prescribed  disinfec- 
tant and  rinse  them  in  clear  water  before  dressing  or  handling  healthy  carcasses. 
All  butchers'  implements  used  in  dressing  diseased  carcasses  shall  be  sterilized  either 
in  boiling  water  or  by  immersion  in  a  prescribed  disinfectant,  followed  by  rinsing 
in  clear  water.  Facilities  for  such  cleansing  and  disinfection,  approved  by  the 
inspector  in  charge,  shall  be  provided  by  the  establishment.  Separate  sanitary  trucks, 
etc.,  which  shall  be  appropriately  and  distinctively  marked,  shall  be  furnished  for 
handling  diseased  carcasses  and  parts.  Following  the  slaughter  of  any  animal 
affected  with  an  infectious  disease,  a  stop  shall  be  made  until  the  implements  have 
been  cleansed  and  disinfected,  unless  other  clean  implements  are  provided. 


IO2     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

Section  12.  Inspectors  are  required  to  furnish  their  own  implements  for  use  in 
dissecting,  incising,  or  examining  diseased  carcasses  or  unsound  parts,  and  are 
required  to  use  the  same  means  for  disinfecting  implements,  hands,  etc.,  that  are 
prescribed  for  employees  of  the  establishment. 

Section  13.  Due  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  meat  and  meat  food  products 
from  falling  on  the  floor;  and  in  the  event  of  their  having  so  fallen,  they  must  be 
condemned  or  the  soiled  portions  removed  and  condemned.  When  meat  or  meat 
food  products  are  being  emptied  into  tanks,  some  device,  such  as  a  metal  funnel, 
must  be  used. 

Section  14.  Carcasses  shall  not  be  inflated  with  air  from  the  mouth,  and  no 
inflation  of  carcasses  except  by  mechanical  means  shall  be  allowed.  Carcasses  shall 
not  be  dressed  with  skewers,  knives,  etc.,  that  have  been  held  in  the  mouth. 
Skewers  shall  be  cleaned  before  being  used  again.  Spitting  on  whetstones  or  steels 
when  sharpening  knives  shall  not  be  allowed. 

Section  15.  Only  good,  clean,  and  wholesome  water  and  ice  shall  be  used  in  the 
preparation  of  carcasses,  parts,  meat,  or  meat  food  products.  Whenever  there  is 
any  doubt  regarding  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  water  supply,  notice  shall  be  sent 
immediately  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Section  16.  Wagons  or  cars  in  which  meat  or  meat  food  products  are  trans- 
ported shall  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition.  The  wagons  used  in  trans- 
porting loose  meat  between  official  establishments  shall  be  so  closed  and  covered 
that  the  contents  shall  be  kept  clean,  and  so  constructed  that  they  may,  when  neces- 
sary, be  locked  and  sealed  wkh  Government  seals,  which  seals  shall  be  affixed  and 
broken  only  by  employees  of  the  Department. 

Section  17.  Skins  and  hides  from  animals  condemned  for  tuberculosis  or  any 
other  disease  infectious  to  man,  but  showing  no  outward  appearance  of  disease,  may 
be  removed  (except  as  provided  in  Regulation  13,  section  2  for  tanning  or  other 
uses  in  the  arts  when  disinfected  as  follows :  Each  skin  and  hide  must  be  immersed 
for  not  less  than  five  minutes  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  liquor  cresolis  compositus 
or  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  or  a  i  to  1,000  solution  of  bichlorid  of 
mercury.  The  process  of  skinning  and  dipping  must  be  conducted  entirely  in  the 
retaining  room,  or  other  specially  prepared  place,  approved  by  the  inspector  in 
charge,  for  final  inspection. 

Regulation  11-     Ante/mortem  Examination  and  Inspection 

Section  i.  An  ante-mortem  examination  and  inspection  shall  be  made  of  ail 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  about  to  be  slaughtered  before  they  shall  be  allowed 
to  be  killed  in  an  official  establishment.  'Satisfactory  facilities  for  conducting  said 
inspection  and  for  separating  and  holding  apart  from  passed  animals  those  marked 
"U.  S.  Suspect"  shall  be  provided. 

Section  2.  All  animals  showing  symptoms  or  suspected  of  being  affected  with 
any  disease  or  condition  which,  under  these  regulations,  would  probably  cause  their 
condemnation  in  whole  or  in  part  when  slaughtered  shall  be  marked  by  affixing  to 
the  animal  a  metal  tag  bearing  the  words  ''U.  S.  Suspect."  All  such  animals,  except 
as  hereinafter  provided,  shall  be  set  apart  and  slaughtered  separately  from  other 
animals  at  an  official  establishment. 

Section  3.  Animals  which  have  been  tagged  for  pregnancy  or  for  having 
recently  given  birth  to  young,  and  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  any  infectious 
or  contagious  disease,  and  vaccine  animals  with  unhealed  lesions  accompanied  by 
fever  and  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  any  other  infectious  or  contagious  disease, 


Post-mortem  Inspection  at  Time  of  Slaughter,  etc.  103 

:ire  not  required  to  be  slaughtered,  but  before  any  such  animal  is  removed  the  tag 
shall  be  detached  by  a  Department  employee  and  returned  with  his  report  to  the 
inspector  in  charge. 

Section  4.  If  any  pathological  condition  is  suspected  in  which  the  question  of 
temperature  is  important,  such  as  Texas  fever,  anthrax,  pneumonia,  blackleg,  or 
septicemia,  the  exact  temperature  should  be  taken.  Due  consideration,  however, 
must  be  given  to  the  fact  that  extremely  high  temperature  may  be  found  in  other- 
wise normal  hogs  when  subjected  to  exercise  or  excitement,  and  a  similar  condition 
may  obtain  to  a  less  degree  among  other  classes  of  animals. 

Section  5.  Animals  commonly  termed  "downers,"  or  crippled  animals,  shall  be 
tagged  before  slaughter  as  provided  for  in  Regulation  17,  section  i,  for  the  purpose 
of  identification  at  the  time  of  slaughter,  and  shall  be  passed  upon  in  accordance  with 
these  regulations. 

Regulation  12,     Port^mortcm  Inspection  at  Time  of  Slaughter 

Section  I.  A  careful  inspection  shall  be  made  of  all  animals  at  the  time  of 
slaughter.  The  head,  tongue,  tail,  thymus  gland,  and  all  viscera,  and  all  parts  and 
blood  used  in  the  preparation  of  meat  food  or  medical  products,  shall  be  retained  in 
such  manner  as  to  preserve  their  identity  until  after  post-mortem  examination  has 
been  completed,  in  order  that  they  may  be  identified  in  case  of  condemnation  of  the 
carcass.  Suitable  racks  or  metal  receptacles  shall  be  provided  for  retaining  such 
parts. 

Section  2.  Carcasses  and  parts  thereof  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  wholesome, 
and  fit  for  human  food  shall  be  passed  and  marked  as  provided  in  these  regulations. 

Section  3.  Should  any  lesion  of  disease  or  other  condition  that  would  render 
the  meat  or  any  organ  unfit  for  food  purposes  be  found  on  post-mortem  examination, 
the  carcass,  part,  or  organ  shall  be  marked  immediately  with  a  tag,  as  provided  in 
Regulation  17,  section  3.  Carcasses  which  have  been  so  marked  shall  not  be  washed 
or  trimmed  unless  such  washing  or  trimming  is  authorized  by  the  inspector. 

Regulation  13,     Disposal  of  Diseased  Carcasses  and  Organs 

Section  i.  General  Statement. — The  carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses  of  all 
animals  slaughtered  at  an  official  establishment  and  found  at  time  of  slaughter  or 
at  any  subsequent  inspection  to  be  affected  with  any  of  the  diseases  or  conditions 
named  below  shall  be  disposed  of  according  to  the  section  of  this  regulation  per- 
taining to  the  disease  or  condition.  It  is  to  be  understood,  however,  that  owing  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  impracticable  to  formulate  rules  covering  every  case,  and  to  desig- 
nate at  just  what  stage  a  process  becomes  loathsome  or  a  disease  noxious,  the 
decision  as  to  the  disposal  of  all  carcasses,  parts  or  organs  not  specifically  covered 
by  these  regulations  shall  be  left  to  the  veterinary  inspector  in  charge. 

Section  2.  Anthrax  or  Charbon. — All  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  anthrax  or 
charbon,  regardless  of  the  extent  of  the  disease,  and  including  the  hide,  hoofs,  horns, 
viscera,  fat,  blood,  and  all  other  portions  of  the  animal,  shall  be  condemned  and 
immediately  incinerated.  The  killing  bed  upon  which  the  animal  was  slaughtered 
shall  be  disinfected  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  formalin,  and  all  knives,  saws, 
cleavers,  and  other  instruments  which  have  come  in  contact  with  the  carcass  shall 
be  treated  as  provided  in  Regulation  10,  section  n,  before  being  used  upon  another 
carcass. 

Section  3.  Blackleg. — Carcasses  of  animals  showing  lesions  of  blackleg  shall 
be  condemned. 


104     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

Section  4.  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia. — Carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  hem- 
orrhagic  septicemia  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  5.  Pyemia  and  Septicemia. — Carcasses  showing  lesions  of  pyemia  or 
septicemia  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  6.  Vaccinia. — Carcasses  of  vaccine  animals  mentioned  under  Regulation 
n,  section  3,  shall  be  condemned. 

'Section  7.  Rabies. — Carcasses  of  animals  which  showed  symptoms  of  rabies 
before  slaughter  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  8.  Tetanus. — Carcasses  of  animals  which  showed  symptoms  of  tetanus 
before  slaughter  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  9.  Malignant  Epizootic  Catarrh. — Carcasses  of  animals  affected  with 
malignant  epizootic  catarrh  and  showing  generalized  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membranes  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  10.  'Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague. — Paragraph  I.  Carcasses  showing 
well-marked  and  progressive  lesions  of  hog  cholera  or  swine  plague  in  more  than 
two  of  the  organs  (skin,  kidneys,  bones,  or  lymphatic  glands)  shall  be  condemned. 

Paragraph  2.  Provided  they  are  well  nourished,  carcasses  showing  slight  and 
limited  lesions  of  these  diseases  may  be  passed. 

Paragraph  3.  Carcasses  which  reveal  lesions  more  numerous  or  advanced  than 
those  for  carcasses  to  be  passed,  but  not  so  severe  as  the  lesions  described  for  car- 
casses to  be  condemned,  may  be  rendered  into  lard,  provided  they  are  cooked  by 
steam  for  four  hours  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  220  degrees  Fahrenheit,  or  at 
a  pressure  of  4  pounds. 

Paragraph  4.  In  inspecting  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  hog  cholera  or  swine 
plague  in  the  skin,  bones,  kidneys,  or  lymphatic  glands,  due  consideration  shall  be 
given  to  the  extent  and  severity  of  the  lesions  found  in  the  viscera. 

Section  n.  Actinomycosis  or  Lumpy  Jaw. — Paragraph  I.  If  a  carcass  affected 
with  actinomycosis  or  lumpy  jaw  is  in  a  well-nourished  condition  and  there  is  no 
evidence  upon  post-mortem  examination  that  the  disease  has  extended  from  a  pri- 
mary area  of  infection  in  the  head,  the  carcass  may  be  passed,  but  the  head,  includ- 
ing the  tongue,  shall  be  condemned. 

Paragraph  2.  Carcasses  of  animals  showing  uncomplicated  localized  actinomy- 
cotic  lesions  other  than,  or  in  addition  to,  those  specified  in  paragraph  i  of  this 
section  may  be  passed  after  the  injected  organs  and  parts  have  been  removed  and 
condemned. 

Paragraph  3.  Carcasses  of  animals  showing  a  generalized  actinomycosis  shall 
be  condemned. 

Section  12.  Caseous  Lymphadenitis. — When  the  lesions  of  caseous  lymphadenitis 
are  limited  to  the  superficial  lymphatic  glands  or  to  a  few  nodules  in  "an  organ, 
involving  also  the  adjacent  lymphatic  glands,  and  the  carcass  is  well  nourished,  the 
meat  may  be  passed  after  the  affected  parts  are  removed  and  condemned.  If  exten- 
sive lesions,  with  or  without  pleuritic  adhesions,  are  found  in  the  lungs,  or  if  several 
of  the  visceral  organs  contain  caseous  nodules  and  the  carcass  is  emaciated,  it  shall 
be  condemned. 

Section  13.  Tuberculosis. — Paragraph  i.  The  following  principles  are  declared 
for  guidance  in  passing  on  carcasses  affected  with  tuberculosis : 

Principle  A— Fundamental  Thought.— The  fundamental  thought  is  that  meat 
should  not  be  used  for  food  if  it  contains  tubercle  bacilli,  if  there  is  a  reasonable  pos- 
sibility that  it  may  contain  tubercle  bacilli,  or  if  it  is  impregnated  with  toxic  sub- 
stances of  tuberculosis  or  associated  septic  infections. 


Disposal  of  Diseased  Carcasses  and  Organs  105 

Principle  B — Lesions  Localised  and  not  Numerous. — On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
lesions  are  localized  and  not  numerous,  if  there  is  no  evidence  of  distribution  of 
tubercle  bacilli  through  the  blood,  or  by  other  means,  to  the  muscles  or  to  parts  that 
may  be  eaten  with  the  muscles,  and  if  the  animal  is  well  nourished  and  in  good  con- 
dition, there  is  no  proof,  or  even  reason  to  suspect,  that  the  flesh  is  unwholesome. 

Principle  C — Generalised  Tuberculosis. — Evidences  of  generalized  tuberculosis 
are  to  be  sought  in  such  distribution  and  number  of  tuberculous  lesions  as  can  be 
explained  only  upon  the  supposition  of  the  entrance  of  tubercle  bacilli  in  consid- 
erable number  into  the  systemic  circulation.  Significant  of  such  generalization  are 
the  presence  of  numerous  uniformly  distributed  tubercles  throughout  both  lungs, 
also  tubercles  in  the  spleen,  kidneys,  bones,  joints,  and  sexual  glands,  and  in  the 
lymphatic  glands  connected  with  these  organs  and  parts,  or  in  the  splenic,  renal, 
prescapular,  popliteal,  and  inguinal  glands,  when  several  of  these  organs  and  parts 
are  coincidentally  affected. 

Principle  D — Localised  Tuberculosis. — By  localized  tuberculosis  is  understood 
tuberculosis  limited  to  a  single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  without  evi- 
dence of  recent  invasion  of  numerous  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circulation. 

Paragraph  2.  Rules  of  Disposal  of  Tuberculous  Meat.  Entire  Carcass  Con- 
demned.— The  following  rules  shall  govern  the  disposal  of  tuberculous  meat : 

Rule  A. — The  entire  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 

(a)  When  it  was  observed  before  the  animal  was  killed  that  it  was  suffering 
with  fever. 

(fe)  When  there  is  a  tuberculous  or  other  cachexia,  as  shown  by  anemia  and 
emaciation. 

(c)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  generalized,  as  shown  by  their  pres- 
ence not  only  at  the  usual  seats  of  primary  infection,  but  also  in  parts  of  the  carcass 
or  the  organs  that  may  be  reached  by  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  only  when  they 
are   carried   in   the   systemic   circulation.     Tuberculous   lesions    in   any  two   of   the 
following-mentioned  organs  are  to  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  generalization  when 
they  occur  in  addition  to  local  tuberculous  lesions  in  the  digestive  or  respiratory 
tracts,  including  the  lymphatic  glands  connected  therewith :  Spleen,  kidney,  uterus, 
udder,   ovary,   testicle,   adrenal   gland,   brain,    or   spinal   cord   or    their   membranes. 
Numerous   uniformly  distributed  tubercles  throughout  both  lungs   also  afford  evi- 
dence of  generalization. 

(d)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  found  in  the  muscles  or  intermuscular 
tissues  or  bones  or  joints  or  in  the  body  lymphatic  glands  as  a  result  of  draining  the 
muscles,  bones,  or  joints. 

O)   When  the  lesions  are  extensive  in  one  or  both  body  cavities. 

(/)  When  the  lesions  are  multiple,  acute,  and  actively  progressive.  (Evidence 
of  active  progress  consists  in  signs  of  acute  inflammation  about  the  lesions,  or  lique- 
faction necrosis,  or  the  presence  of  young  tubercles.) 

Rule  B — Part  of  Carcass  Condemned. — An  organ  or  a  part  of  a  carcass  shall 
be  condemned — 

(a)   When  it  contains  lesions  of  tuberculosis. 

(fr)  When  the  lesion  is  immediately  adjacent  to  the  flesh,  as  in  the  case  of  tuber- 
culosis of  the  parietal  pleura  or  peritoneum,  not  only  the  membrane  or  part  affected 
but  also  the  adjacent  "thoracic  or  abdominal  wall  is  to  be  condemned. 

(c)  When  it  has  been  contaminated  by  tuberculous  material,  through  contact 
with  the  floor,  a  soiled  knife,  or  otherwise. 

(rf)  All  heads  showing  lesions  of  tuberculosis  shall  be  condemned. 


io6     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

O)  An  organ  shall  be  condemned  when  the  corresponding  lymphatic  gland  is 
tuberculous. 

Rule  C — Carcass  Passed. — The  carcass,  if  the  tuberculous  lesions  are  limited 
to  a  single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  (except  as  noted  in  Rule  A),  with- 
out evidence  of  recent  invasion  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circulation,  shall 
be  passed  after  the  parts  containing  the  localized  lesions  are  removed  and  con- 
demned in  accordance  with  Rule  B. 

Rule  D — Carcass  Rendered  Into  Lard  or  Tallow. — Carcasses  which  reveal 
lesions  more  numerous  than  those  described  for  carcasses  to  be  passed  (Rule  O 
but  not  so  severe  as  the  lesions  described  for  cascasses  to  be  condemned  (Rule  A), 
may  be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  if  the  distribution  of  the  lesions  is  such  that  all 
parts  containing  tuberculous  lesions  can  be  removed.  Such  carcasses  shall  be  cooked 
by  steam  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  220  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  not  less  than 
four  hours. 

Section  14.  Texas  Fever. — Carcasses  showing  lesions  to  warrant  the  diagnosis 
of  Texas  fever  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  15.  Parasitic  Ictero-hematuria. — Carcasses  of  sheep  affected  with  para- 
sitic ictero-hematuria  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  16.  Mange  or  Scab. — Carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  mange  or  scab, 
in  advanced  stages,  or  showing  emaciation  or  extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the 
flesh,  shall  be  condemned.  When  the  disease  is  slight  the  carcass  may  be  passed. 

Section  17.  Tapeworm  Cysts. — Paragraph  i.  Carcasses  of  animals  affected 
with  tapeworm  cysts,  known  as  Cysticercus  bozis  and  C.  ccllulosce,  shall  be  rendered 
into  lard  or  tallow,  unless  the  infestation  is  excessive,  in  which  case  the  carcass 
shall  be  condemned. 

Paragraph  2.  Carcasses  of  animals  found  infested  with  gid  bladderworms 
(Caenurus  cerebralis,  Multiceps  socialis)  may  be  passed  after  condemnation  of  the 
infected  organ  (brain,  spinal  cord). 

Paragraph  3.  Carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses  found  infested  with  the  hydatid 
cyst  (echinococcus )  may  be  passed  after  condemnation  of  the  infected  part  or  organ. 

Section  18.  Infections  that  May  Cause  Meat  Poisoning. — All  carcasses  of  ani- 
mals so  infected  that  consumption  of  the  meat  or  meat  food  products  thereof  may 
give  rise  to  meat  poisoning  shall  be  condemned.  This  section  covers  all  carcasses 
showing  signs  of — 

(a)  Acute   inflammation    of    the    lungs,    pleura,    pericardium,    peritoneum,    or 
meninges. 

(b)  Septicemia  or  pyemia,  whether  puerperal,  traumatic,  or  without  any  evident 
cause. 

(c)  Severe  hemorrhagic  or  gangrenous    enteritis  or  gastritis. 

(d)  Acute  diffuse  metritis  or  mammitis. 
(e}   Polyarthritis. 

(f)  Phlebitis  of  the  umbilical  veins. 

(g)  Traumatic   pericarditis. 

(h)  Any  other  inflammation,  abscess,  or  suppurating  sore  if  associated  with 
acute  nephritis,  fatty  and  degenerated  liver,  swollen  soft  spleen,  marked  pulmonary 
hyperemia,  general  swelling  of  lymphatic  glands,  and  diffuse  redness  of  the  skin, 
either  singly  or  in  combination. 

Immediately  after  slaughter  of  any  animal  so  diseased  the  premises  and  imple- 
ments used  must  be  thoroughly  disinfected  as  prescribed  elsewhere  in  these  regula- 
tions. The  part  of  any  carcass  coming  into  contact  with  the  carcass  or  any  part 
of  the  carcass  of  any  animal  covered  by  this  section,  other  than  those  affected  with 


Disposal  of  Diseased  Carcasses  and  Organs  107 

the  diseases  mentioned  in  (a)  above,  or  with  the  place  where  such  animal  was 
slaughtered,  or  with  the  implements  used  in  the  slaughter,  before  thorough  disinfec- 
tion of  such  place  and  implements  has  been  accomplished,  or  with  any  other  con- 
taminated object,  shall  be  condemned;  in  case  the  contaminated  part  is  not  removed 
from  the  carcass  within  two  hours  after  such  contact  the  whole  carcass  shall  be 
condemned. 

Section  19.  Icterus. — Carcasses  affected  with  icterus  and  showing  an  intense 
yellow  or  greenish  yellow  discoloration  after  proper  cooling  shall  be  condemned. 
Carcasses  which  exhibit  a  yellowish  tinge  directly  after  slaughter,  but  lose  this  dis- 
coloration on  chilling,  may  be  passed  for  food. 

Section  20.  Uremia  and  Sexual  Odor. — Carcasses  which  give  off  the  odor  of 
urine  or  a  strong  sexual  odor  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  21.  Urticaria,  etc. — Hogs  affected  with  urticaria  (diamond  skin  dis- 
ease), Tinea  tonsurans,  Demodex  folliculorum,  or  erythema  may  be  passed  after 
detaching  and  condemning  the  skin,  if  the  carcass  is  otherwise  fit  for  food. 

Section  22.  Melanosis,  etc. — Carcasses  of  animals  showing  any  disease,  such  as 
generalized  melanosis,  psuedo-leukemia,  etc.,  which  affects  the  system  of  the  animal, 
shall  be  condemned. 

Section  23.  Tumors,  Bruises,  Abscesses,  Liver  Flukes,  etc. — Any  organ  or  part 
of  a  carcass  which  is  badly  bruised  or  which  is  affected  by  tumors,  malignant  or 
benign,  abscesses,  suppurating  sores,  or  liver  flukes  shall  be  condemned;  but  when 
the  lesions  are  so  extensive  as  to  affect  the  whole  carcass,  the  whole  carcass  shall 
be  condemned. 

Section  24.  Emaciation  and  Anemia. — Carcasses  of  animals  too  emaciated  or 
anemic  to  produce  wholesome  meat,  and  carcasses  which  show  a  slimy  degeneration 
of  the  fat  or  a  serous  infiltration  of  the  muscles,  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  25.  Milk  Fever  and  Railroad  Sickness. — Carcasses  of  animals  showing 
symptoms  of  milk  fever  or  railroad  sickness  at  the  time  of  slaughter  shall  be  con- 
demned, as  the  flesh  of  such  animals  is  frequently  darker  in  color  and  more  watery 
than  is  natural,  and  the  present  view  of  the  pathology  of  at  least  the  first  disease 
suggests  autointoxication. 

Section  26.  Pregnancy  and  Parturition. — Carcasses  of  animals  in  advanced 
stages  of  pregnancy  (showing  signs  of  parturition),  also  carcasses  of  animals  which 
have  within  ten  days  given  birth  to  young,  and  in  which  there  is  no  evidence  of 
septic  infection,  may  be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  if  desired  by  the  manager  of 
the  establishment;  otherwise  they  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  27.  Immaturity. — Carcasses  of  animals  too  immature  to  produce 
wholesome  meat,  all  unborn  and  stillborn  animals,  also  carcasses  of  calves,  pigs 
kids,  and  lambs  under  three  weeks  of  age,  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  28.  Diseased  Par's. — In  all  cases  where  carcasses  showing  localized 
lesions  of  disease  are  passed  or  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow,  the  diseased  parts  must 
be  removed  before  the  '  U.  S.  Retained"  tag  is  taken  from  the  carcass,  and  such  parts 
shall  be  condemned. 

Section  29.  Suffocation. — Hogs  which  have  been  allowed  to  pass  into  the  scald- 
ing vat  alive  or  have  been  suffocated  in  other  ways  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  30.  Dead  Animals. — All  animals  that  die  in  abattoir  pens,  and  those  in 
a  dying  condition  before  slaughter,  shall  be  condemned  and  tagged  as  provided  in 
Regulation  17,  sectiort  2.  In  conveying  to  the  tank  animals  which  have  died  in  the 
pens  of  the  establishment,  they  shall  not  be  allowed  to  pass  through  compartments 
in  which  food  products  are  prepared.  No  dead  animals  shall  be  brought  into  an 
establishment  for  rendering  from  outside  the  premises  of  said  establishment  unless 
permission  is  first  obtained  from  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 


io8     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

Section  31.  Bruised  Parts. — When  a  portion  of  a  carcass  is  to  be  condemned 
on  account  of  slight  bruises,  the  bruised  portion  shall  be  removed  immediately  and 
tanked,  and  the  remainder  of  the  carcass  shall  be  marked  ' '  Inspected  and  Passed. ' ' 
When  desired,  a  retaining  room  may  be  provided  in  one  part  of  the  cooler  for  the 
retention  of  such  carcasses  until  after  they  are  chilled,  when  the  bruised  portion  may 
be  removed. 

Section  32.  Portions  of  Intestines. — Portions  of  intestines  that  show  evidence 
of  infestation  with  esophagostoma  or  other  nodular  affections  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  33.  Evisceration  of  Diseased  Hogs. — Hog  carcasses  found  before  evis- 
ceration has  taken  place  to  be  affected  with  an  infectious  or  contagious  disease, 
including  tuberculosis,  shall  not  be  eviscerated  at  the  regular  killing  bed  or  bench, 
but  shall  be  taken,  separate  from  other  carcasses,  to  the  retaining  room  or  other 
specially  prepared  place  and  there  opened  and  examined. 

Regulation  14,     "  Retaining  "  Rooms 

Section  i.  Separate  compartments,  to  be  known  as  ''retaining  rooms,"  or 
other  places  for  final  inspection,  shall  be  set  apart  at  all  official  establishments,  and 
all  carcasses  and  parts  marked  with  a  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall  be  held  in  these 
rooms  pending  final  inspection.  These  rooms  shall  be  rat  proof,  large  enough  for 
carcasses  to  hang  separately,  furnished  with  abundant  light,  and  provided  with  sani- 
tary tables  and  other  necessary  apparatus ;  the  floors  shall  be  of  cement,  asphalt, 
metal,  or  brick  laid  in  cement;  and  shall  have  proper  sewer  connections.  They 
shall  be  provided  with  facilities  for  locking,  and  locks  for  this  purpose  will  be  fur- 
nished by  the  Department.  The  keys  to  such  locks  shall  remain  in  the  custody  of 
the  inspector  or  his  assistant.  In  establishments  where  it  is  impracticable  or  unde- 
sirable to  have  refrigeration  in  the  retaining  room,  rooms  may  be  constructed  in  the 
cooler  for  the  reception  and  chilling  of  carcasses  not  affected  with  infectious  dis- 
eases, but  which  require  further  inspection. 

Section  2.  Retained  carcasses  shall  be  subjected  to  a  final  inspection,  and 
immediately  after  this  is  completed  those  found  to  be  wholesome  and  fit  for  human 
food  shall  be  released  by  the  veterinary  inspector  conducting  the  inspection,  who 
shall  remove  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tags,  and  the  carcasses  shall  be  removed  from 
the  retaining  room  and  marked  "  Inspected  and  Passed,"  as  provided  in  Regula- 
tion 17,  section  5. 

Section  3.  The  floors  and  walls  of  all  retaining  rooms  shall  be  washed  with 
•hot  water  and  disinfected  after  diseased  animals  are  removed  and  before  any 
' '  retained ' '  carcasses  are  again  placed  therein. 

Regulation  15*     "Condemned  "  Rooms 

Section  i.  In  each  establishment  at  which  condemned  carcasses  or  meat- food 
products  are  held  until  the  day  following  their  condemnation  there  shall  be  pro- 
vided a  room  entirely  separate  from  all  other  rooms  in  the  establishment.  This  room 
shall  be  secure,  rat  proof,  and  shall  be  provided  with  a  lock,  the  key  of  which  shall 
remain  in  the  custody  of  a  Department  employee.  This  room  shall  be  known  as 
the  ' '  condemned  room, ' '  and  shall  be  kept  locked  at  all  times  except  when  con- 
demned meat  or  meat  food  product  is  being  taken  into  or  from  the  said  room  under 
the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee.  The  condemned  room  shall  be  kept 
clean. 


Tank  Rooms,  Tanks,  and  Tanking  109 

Section  2.  Carcasses  or  parts  of  carcesses  found  on  final  inspection  to  be 
unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food  shall  be 
marked  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  as  provided  in  Regulation  17,  section  4, 
and  shall  be  immediately  removed  from  the  retaining  room  to  the  "condemned 
room, ' '  if  such  condemned  room  is  provided.  In  case  no  condemned  room  is  pro- 
vided they  shall  be  locked  in  the  retaining  room  and  shall  be  tanked  at  or  before 
the  close  of  the  day  on  which  they  are  condemned. 

Section  3.  Condemned  carcasses  shall  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  but  shall 
be  removed  from  the  "condemned  room,"  denatured  as  provided  in  Regulation  16, 
section  3,  or  tanked  within  a  reasonable  time  after  condemnation. 

Section  4.  A  truck  or  trucks  of  sufficient  capacity,  plainly  marked,  and  which 
can  be  locked  or  sealed,  shall,  when  required  by  the  inspector  in  charge,  be  pro- 
vided for  handling  condemned  meat. 

Regulation  16.     Tank  Rooms,  Tanks,  and  Tanking 

Section  I.  All  tanks  and  equipment  used  for  rendering  and  preparing  edible 
product  shall  be  in  compartments  separate  from  those  used  for  rendering  inedible 
product,  and  there  shall  be  no  connection  by  means  of  pipes  or  otherwise  between 
the  tanks  or  departments  containing  inedible  product  and  those  containing  edible 
product.  This  provision  must  be  complied  with  on  or  before  October  I,  1908. 

Section  2.  Paragraph  i. — All  condemned  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  and 
meat- food  products  shall  be  tanked  as  follows  : 

Paragraph  2.  After  the  lower  opening  and  the  draw-off  valves  of  the  tank 
have  been  securely  sealed  by  an  employee  of  the  Department  and  the  condemned 
carcasses,  parts,  and  meat-food  products  are  placed  therein  in  his  presence,  the 
upper  opening  shall  be  likewise  securely  sealed  by  such  employee,  whose  duty  it  shall 
be  then  to  see  that  a  sufficient  force  of  steam  (not  less  than  40  pounds,  producing 
a  temperature  of  288  degrees  Fahrenheit)  is  turned  into  the  tanks  and  maintained  a 
sufficient  time  (not  less  than  six  hours)  effectually  to  render  the  contents  unfit  for 
any  edible  product.  Wire  and  lead  seals  are  provided  by  the  Department  for  seal- 
ing tanks.  Proprietors  of  establishments  are  required  to  equip  all  tanks  used  for 
condemned  products  so  that  they  may  be  securely  sealed  in  the  manner  above 
specified. 

Paragraph  3.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  coloring  matter  or  other  substance  to  be 
designated  by  the  Department  shall  be  used  in  connection  with  the  rendering  of  all 
condemned  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  to  destroy 
them  effectually  for  food  purposes. 

Paragraph  4.  The  seals  of  tanks  containing  condemned  meat  or  the  tankage 
thereof  shall  be  broken  only  by  an  employee  of  the  Department,  and  such  employee 
shall  supervise  the  drawing  off  of  the  contents  of  such  tanks  and  the  marking  of 
the  tallow  and  grease  as  inedible. 

Paragraph  5.  If  an  official  establishment  fails  to  permit  the  treatment  and 
tanking  of  condemned  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  as 
required  by  these  regulations,  the  inspector  in  charge  shall  report  that  fact  to  the 
Department,  in  order  that  inspection  may  be  withdrawn  from  such  establishment. 

Section  3.  Any  meat  or  meat-food  products  condemned  at  establishments  which 
have  no  facilities  for  tanking  shall  be  freely  slashed  with  a  knife  and  then  dena- 
tured with  crude  carbolic  acid  or  other  prescribed  agent,  and  then  removed  to  an 
establishment  indicated  by  the  inspector  in  charge  and  there  tanked  and  rendered 
under  the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Department ;  or  such  meat  or  meat-food 
products  may  be  destroyed  by  incineration  under  the  supervision  of  an  employee  of 
the  Department. 


no     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 


Regulation  17,     Tags,  Brands,  Stamps 

Section  i.  To  each  animal  inspected  under  Regulation  n,  which  shows  symp 
toms  or  is  suspected  of  being  affected  with  any  disease  or  condition  which  under 
these  regulations  may  cause  its  condemnation  in  whole  or  in  part  on  post-mortem 
inspection  there  shall  be  affixed  by  a  Department  employee  at  the  time  of  inspection 
a  numbered  metal  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Suspect/'  which  shall  remain  upon 
the  animal  until  final  post-mortem  inspection,  when  the  carcass  shall  be  marked 
according  to  the  conditions  found,  and  disposed  of  as  elsewhere  provided  in  these 
regulations. 

Section  2.  To  the  ear  of  each  animal  which  is  found  in  a  dying  condition  or 
dead  on  the  premises  of  an  establishment  there  shall  be  affixed  by  a  Department 
employee  a  numbered  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Condemned."  The  ear  bearing 
the  tag  shall  not  removed  from  the  carcass.  The  number  of  this  tag  shall  be  reported 
to  the  inspector  in  charge  by  the  employee  who  affixes  it.  This  tag  shall  accompany 
the  condemned  carcass  into  the  tank,  and  the  Department  employee  who  is  super- 
vising the  tanking  shall  make  a  report  of  the  number  to  the  inspector  in  charge. 

Section  3.  Upon  each  carcass,  or  part  or  detached  organ  thereof,  inspected 
under  Regulation  12,  in  which  any  lesion  of  disease  or  other  condition  is  found  that 
might  render  the  meat  or  any  organ  unfit  for  food  purposes,  and  which  for  that 
reason  would  require  a  subsequent  inspection,  there  shall  be  placed  by  a  Depart- 
ment employee  at  the  time  of  inspection  a  tag,  numbered  in  duplicate,  bearing  the 
words  "U.  S.  Retained,"  and  such  other  marks  of  identification  shall  be  used  as 
shall  be  approved  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  The  inspector 
who  attaches  this  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall  detach  the  numbered  stub  thereof  and 
forward  it  with  his.  report  to  the  inspector  in  charge.  The  other  portion  shall 
accompany  the  carcass  to  the  retaining  room. 

Section.  4.  Each  carcass,  or  part  or  detached  organ  thereof,  which  is  found  on 
final  inspecton  to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for 
human  food  shall  be  marked  conspicuously  by  a  Department  employee  at  the  t'me. 
of  inspection  with  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned."  The  "U.  S. 
Retained ' '  tag  shall  accompany  the  carcass  into  the  tank,  and  the  number  thereof 
shall  be  reported  by  the  employee  who  supervises  the  tanking.  If,  however,  upon 
final  inspection  the  carcass  or  part  thereof  is  passed,  the  ' '  U.  S.  Retained ' '  tag  shall 
be  removed  and  returned  to  the  inspector  in  charge.  A  record  of  the  tag  showing 
the  serial  number,  the  final  disposal  of  the  carcass  or  part  to  which  it  was  affixed, 
the  date,  and  the  name  of  the  inspector  shall  be  forwarded  with  the  regular  reports 
to  the  inspector  in  charge. 

Section  5.  Upon  all  passed  carcasses  slaughtered  under  inspection  there  shall 
be  placed  by  an  employee  of  the  Department,  or  by  an  employee  of  the  establishment 
under  the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Department,  meat-inspection  marks 
bearing  the  words  "Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an  authorized  abbreviation  thereof, 
and  such  other  matter  as  may  be  required  by  the  Department.  The  number  of 
marks,  their  location  on  the  carcass,  and  the  time  they  shall  be  affixed,  shall  be 
determined  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Section  6.  Paragrsph  i. — Each  passed  primal  part  or  the  true  container  thereof 
must  be  marked  under  the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee,  with  the  words 
"Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an  authorized  abbreviation  thereof,  and  the  official 
establishment  number,  except  as  provided  in  paragraphs  2  and  3  of  this  section  and 
in  section  12  of  Regulation  25. 


Tags,  Brands,  Stamps  in 

Paragraph  2.  When  primal  parts  are  shipped  from  one  official  establishment  to 
another  for  further  processing,  it  is  not  obligatory  that  the  inspection  legend  appear 
on  such  primal  parts,  but  the  container  thereof  in  the  case  of  a  package  shall  be 
marked  as  specified  in  section  9  of  this  regulation,  and  in  the  case  of  a  car  shall 
be  sealed;  in  such  cases  the  primal  parts,  after  processing,  shall  show  plainly  the 
inspected  legend  and  the  number  of  the  official  establishment  at  which  the  process- 
ing was  completed. 

Paragraph  3.  Passed  primal  parts  of  pork  intended  for  export  need  not  be 
marked  with  the  authorized  marks  of  inspection,  but  all  outside  containers  shall 
bear  the  meat-inspection  stamp. 

Section  7.  The  inspection  legend  or  an  authorized  abbreviation  thereof  may 
be  affixed,  under  the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee,  to  hams,  bacon,  and 
similar  primal  parts  with  a  hot  branding  iron,  and  when  so  affixed  will  be  recognized 
as  the  official  mark  of  inspection.  When  hot  branding  irons  are  used  to  affix  trade 
brands  or  descriptions,  such  brand  or  description  must  be  distinct  and  apart  from 
the  inspection  legend. 

Section  8.  Upon  all  meat-food  products  which  are  suspected  on  reinspection  of 
being  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  or 
upon  the  containers  thereof,  there  shall  be  placed  by  a  Department  employee  at  the 
time  of  reinspection  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tags  hereinbefore  described.  The 
employee  who  affixes  the  tag  shall  send  the  numbered  stub  with  his  report  to  the 
inspector  in  charge.  These  tags  shall  accompany  the  said  meats  or  meat-food  prod- 
ucts to  the  retaining  room  or  other  special  place  for  final  inspection.  When  the 
final  inspection  is  made,  if  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  be  condemned,  the  ' '  U.  S. 
Retained"  tag  shall  be  stamped  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  and  shall 
accompany  the  condemned  meat  or  meat-food  product  to  the  tank,  and  the  inspector 
shall  report  his  action  to  the  inspector  in  charge.  If,  however,  upon  final  inspec- 
tion the  meat  or  meat-food  product  is  passed  for  food,  the  inspector  shall  stamp 
the  retained  tag  "Inspected  and  Passed"  and  return  the  tag  with  his  report  to  the 
inspector  in  charge. 

Section  9.  When  meat  products  for  domestic  trade  have  been  inspected  and 
passed,  the  outside  containers  of  such  meat  shall  bear  (in  lieu  of  meat-inspection 
stamp),  a  domestic  meat  label  which  has  been  submitted  to  and  approved  by  the 
Department,  showing  the  official  establishment  number  and  the  following  legend: 
' '  The  meat  contained  herein  has  been  inspected  and  passed  under  the  provisions  of 
the  act  of  June  30,  1906. ' '  The  firm  name  may  also  appear  on  the  label  if  desired. 
The  dimensions  of  the  label  shall  be  not  less  than  4  inches  by  2|  inches.  Outside 
containers  if  bearing  approved  trade  labels  are  not  required  to  be  provided  with  the 
label  above  described.  Domestic  meat  labels  shall  be  affixed  to  packages  in  the  manner 
prescribed  in  Regulation  24  for  affixing  labels  to  export  packages. 

Section  10.  Each  outside  container  (except  cloth  wrappings)  of  export  meat 
or  meat-food  products  shall  be  marked  with  a  meat-inspection  stamp.  The  cloth 
wrappings  of  inspected  and  passed  meat  which  is  so  marked  shall  be  marked  with 
an  authorized  mark  of  inspection. 

Section  u.  Upon  each  container  of  meat  or  meat-food  products,  such  as  ham, 
bacon,  etc.,  prepared  for  export  with  preservatives  under  Regulation  22,  section  3, 
paragraph  i,  there  shall  be  placed,  under  the  personal  supervision  of  a  Department 
employee,  a  special  stamp  for  marking  such  meats,  known  as  the  ' '  Preservative ' ' 
stamp.  All  outside  containers  of  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  bear  the 
' '  Preservative ' '  stamp. 


112     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 


Regulation  18,     Trade  Labels 

Section  i.  Upon  each  can,  pot,  tin,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle,  or  covering 
containing  any  meat  or  meat-food  product,  which  meat  or  meat-food  product  does 
not  bear  the  marks  "Inspected  and  Passed,"  there  shall  be  securely  affixed,  under 
the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee,  a  trade  label  before  such  meat  or  meat- 
food  product  leaves  an  official  establishment.  This  trade  label  shall  contain,  in  plain 
letters  and  figures  of  uniform  size,  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  the 
number  of  the  official  establishment  at  which  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  is  last 
processed,  and  the  true  name  of  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  contained  in  such 
package.  The  words  "under  the  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,"  may  be  placed 
upon  the  label  after  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed."  An  inspector  shall 
not  allow  trade  labels  to  be  affixed  until  he  is  satisfied  that  the  contents  of  the  pack- 
age are  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  in  accordance  with 
the  statements  on  the  label. 

Section  2.  Duplicate  copies  of  each  trade  label  in  the  form  of  sketches  or 
proofs  shall  first  be  submitted  to  the  Department,  and  no  trade  label  shall  be  used 
until  a  sketch  or  proof  thereof  has  been  approved.  After  trade  labels  are  printed 
from  approved  proofs  or  sketches  they  shall  be  forwarded  in  triplicate  to  the 
Department  for  approval  and  filing. 

Section  3.  No  trade  label  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  or 
any  abbreviation  or  simulation  thereof,  shall  be  used  on  meat  or  meat-food  prod- 
ucts which  have  not  been  inspected  and  passed  under  these  regulations,  and  no  trade 
label  bearing  the  inspection  legend,  or  any  abbreviation  or  simulation  thereof,  shall 
be  placed  upon  meat  or  meat-food  products  except  under  the  supervision  of  an 
inspector. 

Section  4.  Tin  containers,  embossed  or  lithographed  with  the  label  as  pre- 
scribed in  section  i,  will  be  considered  as  bearing  trade  labels.  On  and  after  Octo- 
ber i,  1908,  all  sealed  tin  containers  must  have  the  number  of  the  official  establish- 
ment where  packed  embossed,  lithographed,  or  printed  thereon. 

Section  5.  The  essential  features  of  a  trade  label  are  as  follows,  and  shall 
appear  upon  each  label : 

The  true  name  of  the  product. 

The  inspection  legend. 

The  establishment  number. 

Section  6.  The  inspection  legend  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an  author- 
ized abbreviation  thereof,  and  the  official  establishment  number  in  plain  characters 
of  uniform  size,  which  shall  be  in  proper  proportion  to  the  general  lettering  of  the 
label,  must  be  separately  and  prominently  embodied  in  all  trade  labels. 

Section  7.  In  the  case  of  meat  contained  in  cartons,  or  in  wrappers  of  paper, 
cloth,  or  other  similar  substance,  the  inspection  legend  and  the  official  establishment 
number  may  be  embodied  in  a  sticker  or  seal  of  proportionate  size  prominently  dis- 
played with  the  trade  label,  but  not  necessarily  a  part  of  the  trade  label,  such  stickers 
or  seals  to  be  approved  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  It  is  not  permissible  to 
affix  to  meat  or  meat-food  products  a  detachable  device  of  any  kind  which  bears 
the  inspection  legend. 

Section  8.  While  labels  to  be  affixed  for  foreign  shipment  may  be  printed  in  a 
foreign  language,  the  same  rules  shall  apply  with  reference  to  false  labeling  and 
the  naming  of  ingredients  as  shall  apply  to  goods  prepared  for  domestic  use.  The 
Inspection  legend  and  the  official  establishment  number  must  in  all  cases  appear  in 


Reinspection  n^ 

English,  but  if  desired  they  may  in  addition,  literally  translated,  appear  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country  to  which  the  package  is  destined. 

Section  9.  Paragraph  i.  When  an  article  is  prepared  by  an  official  establish- 
ment for  another  firm  or  individual,  if  the  name  of  the  said  firm  or  individual  is  to 
appear  upon  the  label  the  statement  must  be  made  that  the  article  was  "prepared  for" 
or  "manufactured  for"  the  firm  or  individual.  Names  of  subsidiary  companies 
which  have  legal  entity  may  be  used  without  the  prefix  "prepared  for"  or  "manufac- 
tured for." 

Paragraph  2.  When  a  firm  or  individual  not  operating  under  Federal  inspec- 
tion desires  to  reship  inspected  and  passed  meat  that  has  been  processed  only  under 
Government  inspection  and  is  eligible  under  these  regulations  for  interstate  ship- 
ment, he  may  affix  to  the  package  the  following  statement:  "The  meat  contained 
herein  has  been  inspected  and  passed  at  an  establishment  where  Federal  inspection 
is  maintained." 

Section  10.  No  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  by 
any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  under  any  false  or  deceptive  name ;  but  the  estab- 
lished trade  name  or  names  which  are  usual  to  such  products,  which  are  not  false 
and  deceptive  and  which  shall  be  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  are 
permitted. 

Section  n.  No  picture,  design,  or  device,  which  gives  any  false  indication  of 
origin  or  quality  shall  be  used  upon  any  label.  The  law  prohibits  any  statement, 
design,  or  device  false  in  any  particular  regarding  the  virtues  or  properties  of  the 
materials  contained  in  the  package. 

Section  12.  A  meat-food  product  when  composed  of  more  than  one  ingre- 
dient shall  not  bear  a  trade  label  with  a  name  stating  or  purporting  to  show  that  the 
said  meat-food  product  is  a  substance  which  is  not  the  principal  ingredient  con- 
tained therein,  even  though  such  name  be  an  established  trade  name. 

Section  13.  A  meat-food  product  that  contains  a  substance  or  substances, 
including  water,  added  for  the  purpose  of  adulteration  and  which  lessens  its  food 
value  shall  bear  a  label  stating  that  such  substance  or  substances  have  been  added. 

Section  14.  When  any  weight  is  given  upon  the  true  container  it  must  be  the 
correct  weight,  and  it  must  be  stated  whether  this  weight  is  the  net  weight  or  the 
gross  weight. 

Regulation  19.     Reinspection 

Section  i.  Immediately  before  shipment  and  at  such  other  times  as  may  be 
deemed  necessary  all  carcasses  or  parts  thereof,  whether  fresh  or  cured,  that  have 
been  previously  inspected  and  passed  shall  be  reinspected  by  the  inspector  in  charge 
or  his  assistants,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  prescribed  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  and  if  upon  any  such  reinspection  any  carcass  or  part  thereof  is 
found  to  have  become  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  in  any  way  unfit  for 
human  food  the  original  mark,  stamp,  tag,  or  label  shall  be  destroyed  or  defaced  and 
the  carcass  or  part  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  2.  Except  as  provided  in  Regulation  20,  only  carcasses  and  parts 
thereof,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  which  have  not  been  processed  except  under 
Government  supervision,  and  which  can  by  marks,  seals,  brands,  or  labels  be  iden- 
tified as  having  been  previously  inspected  and  passed  by  a  Department  employee, 
shall  be  taken  into  or  allowed  to  enter  an  official  establishment.  All  such  carcasses, 
parts,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  which  are  brought  into  one  official  establishment 
from  another,  or  which  are  returned  to  the  establishment  from  which  they  issued, 
shall  be  identified  and  reinspected  at  the  time  of  receipt,  and  shall  be  subject  to 

9 


H4     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

further  reinspection  in  such  manner  and  at  such  times  as  may  be  deemed  necessary. 
If  upon  any  such  reinspection  any  carcass  or  part  thereof,  or  meat  or  meat- food 
product,  is  found  to  have  become  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  in  any  way 
unfit  for  human  food,  the  original  mark,  stamp,  tag,  or  label  shall  be  defaced  or 
destroyed,  and  the  carcass,  part,  meat,  or  meat-food  product  shall  be  condemned. 

Section  3.  Special  docks  and  receiving  rooms  shall  be  designated  by  the  estab- 
lishment for  the  receipt  and  inspection  of  all  meat  or  meat-food  products,  and  no  meat 
or  meat-food  products  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  the  establishment  except  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  Department  employee. 

Section  4.  Unrendered  fats  from  carcasses  which  have  been  inspected  and 
passed  may  be  returned  and  received  into  official  establishments,  provided  the  fats 
have  been  handled  in  a  sanitary  manner  after  leaving  the  establishment,  and  pro- 
vided further  that  upon  inspection  the  fats  are  found  to  be  clean,  sweet,  wholesome, 
and  fit  for  human  food.  However,  the  return  of  such  fats  to  official  establishments 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  shall  be  handled  from  the  time  they  leave  such  estab- 
lishments until  their  return  thereto  shall  be  governed  by  such  specific  instructions 
as  may  be  issued  from  time  to  time  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Section  5.  Inedible  fats  may  be  received  only  into  the  tank  room  provided  for 
inedible  products,  and  when  so  received  they  shall  not  enter  any  compartment  used 
for  edible  products. 

Section  6.  Paragraph  i.  In  order  to  provide  for  the  interstate  transportation, 
from  public  markets  and  other  places,  of  portions  of  inspected  and  passed  carcasses, 
parts,  and  meat-food  products  which,  when  cut  or  otherwise  removed  from  a 
marked  carcass,  part,  or  container,  do  not  show  the  inspection  mark  and  cannot 
therefore  be  identified  as  having  been  inspected  and  passed,  market  inspection  may 
be  furnished.  Each  city  in  which  market  inspection  is  established  will  be  assigned 
a  number,  and  all  products  forwarded  under  such  inspection  shall  bear  the  inspec- 
tion legend  and  the  official  number  assigned  to  the  city. 

Paragraph  2.  Unmarked  portions  which  are  cut  from  the  marked  carcass  or 
part,  or  are  removed  from  the  marked  container  for  interstate  transportation,  shall 
be  marked  by  a  Department  employee.  Wherever  practicable  the  brand  shall  be 
applied  to  the  meat  itself;  where  this  cannot  be  done  the  true  container  of  the  meat 
or  meat-food  product  shall  be  marked  as  required  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  industry. 

Paragraph  3.  All  market  stalls  or  other  places  which  are  given  market  inspec- 
tion shall  be  maintained  in  a  sanitary  condition  and  shall  also  conform  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Department  governing  the  use  of  the  drugs,  chemicals,  dyes,  and 
preservatives. 

Regulation  20,     Carcasses  of  Animals  Not  Inspected  Ante/rnortem 

Section  I.1  Carcasses  of  animals  which  have  had  no  ante-mortem  inspection 
by  inspectors  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  will  not,  except  as  hereinafter  pro- 
vided, be  admitted  into  an  official  establishment.  The  exception  to  this  rule  applies 
only  to  carcasses  to  which  the  head  and  all  viscera,  except  the  stomach,  bladder,  and 
intestines,  are  held  by  the  natural  attachments.  Such  carcasses,  if  offered  for  admis- 
sion into  official  establishments,  shall  be  inspected,  and  if  found  to  be  free  from 
disease  and  otherwise  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food  they  shall 
be  marked  "Inspected  and  Passed"  and  admitted.  If  found  to  be  diseased,  unsound, 
unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  they  shall  be  marked 
"U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  and  the  proprietor  of  the  establishment  shall  be 
required  to  destroy  them  for  food  purposes,  as  provided  in  Regulation  16,  section  2. 


1  Formerly  Regulation  62,   B.  A.   I.   Order   137. 


Tank  Cars,  etc.  115 


Regulation  21,     Tank  Cars 

Section  i.  Tank  cars  carrying  edible  meat-food  products  into  interstate  or 
foreign  commerce  shall  be  provided  with  proper  appliances  for  sealing  and  be 
securely  sealed  with  seals  furnished  by  the  Department  and  affixed  by  Department 
employees. 

Section  2.  When  such  products  for  export  are  transferred  from  tank  cars  to 
other  containers  on  boats,  such  transfer  shall  be  under  Government  supervision,  and 
the  said  containers  on  boats  shall  likewise  be  sealed. 

Regulation  22,    Dyes,  Chemicals,  and  Preservatives 

Section  I.  No  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  contain  any  substance  which 
lessens  its  wholesomeness,  nor  any  drug,  chemical,  dye,  or  preservative,  except 
as  hereinafter  provided. 

Section  2.  Paragraph  i.  There  may  be  added  to  meat  or  meat-food  products 
common  salt,  sugar,  wood  smoke,  vinegar,  pure  spices,  and  saltpeter.  Only  such 
coloring  matters  as  may  be  designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  being 
harmless  may  be  used,  and  these  only  in  such  manner  as  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture may  designate. 

Paragraph  2.  Substances  necessary  for  the  preparation,  clarification,  or  refining 
of  meat-food  products  will  be  permitted  to  be  used  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  provided  they  are  eliminated  from  the  meat-food  products 
during  the  further  process  of  manufacture. 

Section  3.  Paragraph  i.  In  accordance  with  the  written  direction  of  the 
foreign  purchaser  or  his  agent,  meat  or  meat-food  products  prepared  for  export  may 
contain  preservatives  of  a  kind  and  in  proportions  which  do  not  conflict  with  the 
laws  of  the  foreign  country  to  which  they  are  to  be  exported;  but  when  such  meat 
or  meat-food  products  are  prepared  for  export  under  this  regulation  they  shall  be 
prepared  in  compartments  of  the  establishment  separate  and  apart  from  those  in 
which  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  prepared  for  the  domestic  trade,  and  such 
products  shall  be  kept  separate.  Distinctive  export  certificates  and  stamps  will  be 
issued  for  meat  or  meat-food  products  of  this  character,  but,  if  the  products  are  not 
exported,  under  no  circumstances  shall  they  be  allowed  to  enter  domestic  trade. 

Paragraph  2.  The  packing  of  meat  which  is  prepared,  as  provided  in  para- 
graph i  of  this  section,  with  any  preservative  not  permitted  by  paragraph  i,  section  2, 
may  be  done  in  the  regular  packing  room,  provided  that  no  other  meat  is  allowed 
in  the  packing  room  during  the  time  of  such  packing.  After  such  packing 
is  completed  the  packing  room  shall  be  thoroughly  cleansed  of  the  preservative 
before  the  packing  of  other  meat  therein  is  resumed.  A  separate  compartment  con- 
structed of  tight  partitions,  or  walls  shall  be  set  apart  for  storing  the  preservative 
trays  and  other  appliances  used  in  connection  with  the  packing.  The  Department 
will  furnish  a  lock  and  key  for  this  compartment,  and  the  packing  of  all  meat  under 
this  section  shall  be  conducted  under  the  personal  supervision  of  an  employee  of 
this  Department. 

Regulation  23,     Preparation  of  Meat  and  MeaMood  Products 

Section  i.  All  processes  used  in  curing,  pickling,  rendering,  canning,  or  other  • 
wise  preparing  meat  or  meat-food  products  in  official  establishments  shall  be  super- 
vised by  Department  employees.  No  fixtures  or  appliances,  such  as  tables,  trucks, 
trays,  tanks,  vats,  machines,  implements,  cans,  or  containers  of  any  kind  shall  be 


n6     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

used  unless  they  are  clean  and  sanitary.  All  steps  in  the  process  of  manufacture 
shall  be  conducted  carefully  and  with  strict  cleanliness.  All  salt  pickling  fluids,  and 
other  solutions  or  substances  used  in  curing  meat  must  be  clean. 

Section  2.  Canned  meat  or  meat-food  products  which  require  sterilization  to 
preserve  them  must  be  subjected  to  this  process  on  the  same  day  that  the  cans  are 
filled.  Defective  or  leaking  cans  discovered  after  the  process  of  sterilization  has 
been  completed  shall  not  be  repaired  or  repacked  (unless  such  repairing  or  repack- 
ing is  done  within  six  hours  of  the  time  of  original  sterilization),  but  the  contents 
of  such  cans  shall  be  removed  and  condemned. 

Section  3.  Potato  flour  shall  not  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  sausage,  nor 
shall  excessive  quantities  of  cereals  or  water  be  used. 

Section  4.  Paragraph  i.  The  manufacture  of  all  fats  into  lard,  tallow,  oils,  and 
stearin  at  official  establishments  shall  be  closely  supervised  by  employees  of  the 
Department,  who  shall  see  that  all  portions  of  carcasses  rendered  into  edible  products 
are  clean  and  wholesome. 

Paragraph  2.  Heads  rendered  into  edible  products  shall  first  be  split,  cross- 
sectioned,  and  thoroughly  washed  and  cleaned. 

Paragraph  3.  When  hogs'  feet  are  used  for  lard,  the  hair,  hoofs,  and  the  tissues 
of  the  interdigital  spaces  must  be  removed. 

Paragraph  4.  All  pipes  and  similar  conveyors  used  in  conducting  edible  fats 
from  one  receptacle  or  container  to  another  shall  be  of  a  distinctly  different  color 
from  the  pipes  and  similar  conveyors  used  in  conducting  inedible  fats  from  on 3 
receptacle  or  container  to  another. 

Paragraph  5.  Blueprints  or  other  accurate  diagrams  showing  all  underground 
pipe  lines  or  other  conveyors  used  to  conduct  edible  and  inedible  products  at  official 
establishments  and  also  those  extending  from  official  establishments  to  other  estab- 
lishments, either  official  or  unofficial,  with  a  description  giving  the  exact  location, 
terminals,  and  dimensions  of  such  pipes,  or  other  conveyers,  and  of  all  gates,  valves, 
or  other  controlling  apparatus,  shall  be  filed  with  the  Department,  and  a  copy  of  such 
prints  or  diagrams  shall  be  filed  with  the  inspector  in  charge.  The  prints  or  dia- 
grams should  designate  the  lines  used  for  conveying  edible  products  and  those  used 
for  conveying  inedible  products.  If  no  such  underground  pipes  or  conveyers 
are  used  for  the  purposes  above  indicated,  a  written  statement  certifying  to  this  fact 
and  duly  signed  by  the  management  of  each  establishment  shall  be  filed  with  the 
Department. 

Paragraph  6.  All  containers,  such  as  vats  and  tierces,  in  which  white  grease 
or  other  inedible  meat  products  are  placed,  shall  be  plainly  marked  "inedible"  in  such 
a  manner  that  they  can  be  readily  identified. 

Paragraph  7.  Final  containers,  such  as  tierces,  shall  be  appropriately  marked 
on  both  ends  immediately  after  filling. 

Section  5.  The  only  animal  casings  that  may  be  used  as  containers  in  the 
manufacture  of  sausage  under  these  regulations  are  those  from  cattle,  hogs,  sheep, 
or  goats. 

Regulation  24,     Stamps  for  Export  Packages 

Section  I.  Paragraph  i.  Numbered  meat-inspection  stamps  shall  be  affixed 
to  packages  (except  those  in  cloth  wrappings)  containing  meat  or  meat- food 
products  to  be  shipped  or  otherwise  transported  in  foreign  trade. 

Paragraph  2.  Stamps  shall  be  affixed  in  the  following  manner,  and  when  they 
have  been  affixed  they  shall  be  covered  immediately  with  a  coating  of  transparent 
varnish  or  other  similar  substance: 


Transportations  117 

(a)  The  stamp  may  be  affixed  in  a  grooved  space  made  by  removing  a  portion 
of  the  wood  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  stamp. 

(b)  The  stamp  may  be  placed  on  either  end  of  the  package,  provided  that  the 
sides  are  made  to  project  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  afford  the  necessary  pro- 
tection from  abrasion. 

Section  2.  Inedible-product  stamps  and  certificates  may,  upon  request,  be 
issued  to  accompany  shipments  for  export  of  casings,  bladders,  lungs,  hoofs,  and 
other  similar  inedible  animal  products. 

Regulation  25,     Transportations1 

Section  I.  Upon  the  application  of  the  exporter  the  inspector  in  charge  of  an 
establishment  is  authorized  to  issue  certificates  for  export  shipments  of  inspected 
and  passed  meat  or  meat-food  products.  The  certificate  should  be  issued  at  the  time 
the  product  leaves  the  establishment ;  if,  however,  the  certificate  is  not  issued  at  that 
time,  it  can  only  be  issued  upon  identification  and  reinspection  of  the  product. 

Section  2.  These  certificates  shall  be  issued  in  serial  numbers  and  in  triplicate 
form.  Each  certificate  shall  show  the  names  of  the  exporter,  and  the  consignee,  the 
destination,  the  numbers  of  the  stamps  attached  to  the  article  to  be  exported,  the 
shipping  marks,  the  kind  of  product,  and  the  weight. 

Section  3.  Only  one  certificate  shall  be  issued  for  each  consignment  unless 
otherwise  directed  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

'Section  4.  Both  the  original  and  duplicate  certificates  shall  be  delivered  by  the 
inspector  to  the  shipper.  The  copy  of  certificate  provided  by  law  to  be  delivered  to 
the  chief  officer  of  the  vessel  shall  be  the  duplicate  copy  and  shall  be  filed  with  the 
customs  officers  at  the  time  of  filing  the  master's  manifest  or  the  supplemental 
manifest. 

Section  5.  No  master  of  any  steam  or  sailing  vessel  shall  receive  for  transpor- 
tation or  transport  from  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  any  of  the 
countries  of  continental  Europe,  or  to  Argentina  or  Mexico,  any  carcass,  part  of 
carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  except  ship  stores, 
unless  and  until  a  certificate  of  inspection  covering  the  same  has  been  issued  and 
delivered  as  provided  in  this  regulation.  The  requirement  of  export  certificates  is 
waived  for  meat  and  meat-food  products  to  foreign  countries,  other  than  those  here- 
inbefore named. 

Section  6.  When  inedible  grease,  inedible  tallow,  or  inedible  stearin  derived 
from  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  is  offered  for  export,  the  collectors  of  customs, 
under  instructions  from  the  Secertary  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  will  require  an 
affidavit  from  the  exporter  that  the  products  to  be  exported  are  inedible  and  are  not 
intended  for  food  purposes. 

Section  7.2  No  person,  firm,  or  corporation  shall  receive  for  transportation  or 
transport  from  one  St?.te  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  another  State  or 
Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food 
product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  unless  and  until  a  certificate  is  made  and 
furnished  in  one  of  the  forms  prescribed  in  sections  II,  12,  13,  and  14  of  this  regula- 
tion, showing  that  such  meat  or  meat-food  product  has  been  either  inspected  and 


1  The  transportation  of  meat  or  meat-food  product  from  one  point  in  a  State  or 
Territory  to  another  point  in  the  same  State  or  Territory,  when  in  course  of  ship- 
ment the  meat  or  meat-food  product  is  taken  through  another  State  or  Terriory,  is 
interstate  commerce. 

-  Formerly  Regulation  52,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


1 1 8     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

passed  or  exempted  from  inspection,  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906: 
Provided,  That  printed  certificates  in  the  forms  formerly  required  and  now  on  hand 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  necessary,  as  old  stocks  of  printed  certificates 
are  exhausted,  that  new  ones  be  printed  in  the  new  forms. 

Section  8.1  When  any  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  products  covered  by 
these  regulations  is  offered  to  any  common  carrier  for  carriage  within  the  United 
States  as  a  part  of  a  foreign  movement,  the  same  certificate  shall  be  required  as  if 
the  shipment  was  destined  to  a  point  within  the  United  States. 

Section  p.2  Paragraph  i.  Shipments  of  inspected  and  passed  meat  or  meat- 
food  products  that  are  so  marked  may  be  diverted  from  the  original  destination 
without  a  reinspection  of  the  product,  if  a  new  certificate  showing  the  changed 
destination  be  given  to  the  carrier  by  the  owner  or  shipper,  who  may  or  may  not 
be  the  original  shipper ;  or  in  case  of  a  wreck  or  other  extraordinary  emergency  the 
carrier  may  divert  such  shipments  from  the  original  destination  without  a  new 
shippers'  certificate. 

Paragraph  2.  The  Government  seals  on  a  car  containing  inspected  and  passed 
meat  or  meat-food  products  may  be  broken  by  the  carrier  in  case  of  wreck  or  other 
extraordinary  emergency,  and  if  necessary  the  product  may  be  reloaded  into  another 
car  or  the  shipment  may  be  diverted  from  the  original  destination  without  another 
shipper's  certificate ;  but  in  all  such  cases  the  carrier  shall  immediately  report  the 
transaction  by  telegraph  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington. 
D.  C.  Such  report  shall  include  the  information  indicated  below: 

(a)  Nature  of  the  emergency. 

(b)  Place  where  seals  were  broken. 

(c)  Original  points  of  shipment  and  destination. 

(d)  Number  and  initials  of  the  original  car. 

O)   Number  and  initials  of  the  car  into  which  the  product  is  reloaded. 

(/)   New  destination  of  the  shipment. 

(g)  Kind  and  amount  of  product. 

Section  io.2  Reshipments  of  inspected  meat  or  meat-food  products  which  are 
sound  and  wholesome  at  the  time  of  reshipment  may  be  made  without  reinspection 
when  the  meat  or  meat-food  products,  or  the  containers  thereof,  are  marked 
"Inspected  and  Passed,"  and  the  meat  or  meat-food  products  have  not  been  proc- 
essed since  they  were  originally  shipped  under  section  n  of  this  regulation.  Also 
jobbers,  wholesalers,  or  others  who  do  no  processing,  and  who  receive  "Inspected 
and  Passed"  meat  or  meat-food  products,  may  break  bulk,  repack,  and  reship  the 
same  into  interstate  commerce  under  section  n  of  this  regulation,  if  each  piece  of 
meat  or  meat-food  product  in  the  unmarked  package  bears  the  original  authorized 
mark  of  Government  inspection.  Inspection  shall  be  maintained  at  the  establish- 
ments of  all  such  jobbers,  wholesalers,  or  others  who  do  any  processing. 

Section  u.3  When  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  which  has  been  inspected  and  passed  and  so  marked  under 
these  regulations  is  offered  to  any  common  carrier  for  transportation  from  one  State 
or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  another  State  or  Territory  or  the 
District  of  Columbia  for  interstate  shipment  only,  or  for  interstate  shipment  as  part 
of  a  foreign  movement,  or  for  foreign  shipment,  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation 
offering  such  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  shall  make  a  certificate  in 
the  following  form  and  deliver  the  same  to  the  said  common  carrier,  except  as  pro- 
vided in  section  12  of  this  regulation: 


1  Formerly  Regulation  52,  B.  A.  T.  Order    137. 

2  Former'y  Meat  Inspection  Rulings  T  A. 

3  Formerly  Regulation  53.  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


Transportations  119 

Date 190... 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Shipper 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee. 

Destination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  products  described  herein,  which 
are  offered  for  shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  have  been  inspected  and 
passed  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  are  so  marked,  and  at  this  date 
are  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food. 

Kind  of  product  Amount  and  weight 


(Signature  of  shipper) 


(Address  of  shipper) 

This  certificate  may  be  stamped  upon  or  incorporated  in  any  form  which  is  regu- 
larly or  ordinarily  used  in  the  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  products. 

Section  I2.1  Paragraph  i.  An  official  establishment  may  ship  from  the  said 
establishment  to  any  other  official  establishment  any  meat  or  meat-food  product 
which  has  been  inspected  and  passed  under  these  regulations  without  marking  the 
same  "Inspected  and  Passed,"  if  such  shipment  be  placed  in  a  railroad  car  which  is 
sealed  by  an  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  provided  that  not 
less  than  25  per  cent,  of  the  contents  of  each  car  consists  of  meat  or  meat-food 
products  not  marked  "Inspected  and  Passed." 

Paragraph  2.  Wagons  so  equipped  that  they  can  be  securely  sealed  by  a  Depart- 
ment employee  may  be  considered  as  true  containers. 

Paragraph  3.  When  shipments  are  made  under  paragraph  i  of  this  section  the 
shipper  shall  make  for  each  car  and  deliver  to  the  common  carrier  in  duplicate  a 
certificate  in  the  following  form : 

Date 190... 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Establishment  number  of  consignor 

Point  of  shipment 

Establishment  number  of  consignee 

Destination 

Car  number  and  initials 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  following-described  meat  or  meat-food  products  have 
been  inspected  and  passed  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906.  They  are 


1  Formerly  Regulation  54,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


I2O     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

not  marked  "Inspected  and  Passed,"  but  have  been  placed  in  the  above  car  under 
the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  which  was  sealed 
by  him  with  Government  seals  Nos and 

Kind  of  product  Amount  and  weight 


(Signature  of  shipper) 


(Address  of  shipper) 

The  duplicate  certificate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  initial  carrier  to 
the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  Attention  is 
directed  to  the  law  which  provides  a  penalty  of  fine  and  imprisonment  for  any 
unauthorized  person  who  breaks  a  seal  on  such  cars. 

When  shipments  are  made  under  this  section  the  inspector  in  charge  at  point 
of  origin  shall  duly  notify  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the 
inspector  in  charge  at  point  of  destination. 

Section  I3.1  When  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  or  goats  which  has  not  been  inspected  under  these  regulations  is  offered 
for  shipment  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  another 
State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  by  any  retail  butcher  or  retail  dealer 
who  holds  a  certificate  of  exemption  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the 
common  carrier  shall  require  a  certificate  to  be  made  in  duplicate  in  the  following 
form  by  said  retail  butcher  or  retail  dealer,  which  certificate  shall  in  all  cases  show 
the  exemption  number  designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  said  retail 
butcher  or  retail  dealer: 

Date 190. . . 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Shipper 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

Number  of  exemption  certificate 


I  hereby  certify  that  I  am  a  retail  butcher  or  a  retail  dealer  in  meat  or  meat-food 
products;  that  the  following-described  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  offered  for 
shipment  in  interstate  commerce  to  a  customer,  as  exempted  from  inspection  accord- 
ing to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  under  certificate  issued  to  me  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  that  at  this  date  they  are  sound,  healthful, 
wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  and  contain  no  preservative  or  coloring  matter 
or  other  substance  prohibited  by  the  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
governing  meat  inspection. 

1  Formerly  Regulation  55,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


Transportations  121 

Kind  of  product  Amount  and  weight 


(Signature  of  shipper) 


(Address  of  shipper) 

The  duplicate  certificate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  initial  carrier 
to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  This  certificate 
shall  be  separate  and  apart  from  any  waybill,  bill  of  lading,  or  other  form  ordinarily 
used  in  the  shipment  of  meat. 

Section  I4.1  When  any  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  have  been  slaughtered  by 
any  farmer  on  the  farm,  and  the  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  or  meat-food  products 
thereof  are  offered  to  any  common  carrier  for  transportation  from  one  State  or  Ter- 
ritory or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of 
Columbia,  the  common  carrier  may  so  transport  such  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses, 
or  meat-food  products  as  long  as  the  same  may  be  identified  as  of  animals 
slaughtered  by  any  farmer  on  the  farm. 

The  common  carrier  shall  require  a  certificate  in  duplicate  in  the  following 
form  : 

Date 190. . . 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Shipper 

Consignee 

Point  of  shipment 

Destination 

1  hereby  certify  that  the  following-described  uninspected  meat  or  meat-food 
products  are  from  animals  slaughtered  by  a  farmer  on  the  farm,  and  are  offered 
for  transportation  in  interstate  commerce  as  exempted  from  inspection  according  to 
act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  and  that  at  this  date  they  are  sound,  healthful, 
wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  and  contain  no  preservative  or  coloring  matter 
or  other  substance  prohibited  by  the  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
governing  meat  inspection. 

Kind  of  product  Amount  and  weight 


(Signature  of  shipper) 


(Address  of  shipper) 

The  duplicate  certificate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  initial  carrier  to 
the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Formerly  Regulation  56,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


122     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

Section  15. l  All  original  certificates  delivered  to  the  common  carrier,  as 
required  by  this  regulation,  shall  be  filed  and  retained  for  one  year  by  the  initial 
carrier,  in  order  that  they  may  be  readily  checked  by  this  Department  in  such  man- 
ner as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  from  time  to  time  prescribe.2 

Section  i6.3  All  waybills,  transfer  bills,  running  slips,  or  conductor's  cards 
accompanying  an  interstate  or  foreign  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  product  must 
have  embodied  in,  stamped  upon,  or  attached  to  it  a  signed  statement  which  shall  be 
evidence  to  connecting  carriers  that  the  proper  shipper's  certificate  as  required  by 
sections  n,  12,  13,  and  14  of  this  regulation  is  on  file  with  the  initial  carrier,  and  no 
connecting  carrier  shall  receive  for  transportation  or  transport  any  interstate  or 
foreign  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  product  unless  the  waybill,  transfer  bill,  run- 
ning slip,  or  conductor's  card  accompanying  the  same  includes  the  aforesaid  signed 
statement  in  one  of  the  following  forms : 

When  shipment  is  made  under  section  n  or  12: 

(Name  of  transportation  company) 

United  States  inspected  and  passed  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate  on  file 
with  initial  carrier. 

(Signed )  ,    Agent. 

When  shipment  is  made  under  section  13  or  14: 

(Name   of  transportation   company.) 

Exempted  from  inspection  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate  on  file  with 
initial  carrier. 

(Signed  >  ,    Agent. 

Section  17.*  Paragraph  i.  When  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food 
product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  loaded  on  a  truck,  wagon,  cart,  or  other 
vehicle,  or  otherwise  prepared  for  shipment,  is  offered  for  transportation  or  trans- 
ported by  ferry,  such  ferry  being  the  initial  carrier  from  one  State,  Territory,  or 
the  District  of  Columbia  to  another  State,  Territory,  or  the  District  of  Columbia, 
the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  offering  such  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food 
product  shall,  except  as  hereinafter  provided  by  paragraph  5,  make  a  certificate  in 
one  of  the  forms  hereinafter  indicated  and  deliver  the  certificate  to  said  common 
carrier ;  and  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation  operating  a  ferry  line  as  aforesaid  shall 
receive  for  transportation  or  transport  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food 
product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  loaded  on  a  truck,  wagon,  cart,  or  other 
vehicle,  or  in  any  other  manner  prepared  for  transportation,  unless  a  certificate  in 
one  of  the  forms  referred  to  is  properly  filled  out  and  delivered  by  the  shipper  as 
herein  required. 

Paragraph  2.  When  the  shipment  consists  of  inspected  and  passed  meat  or  meat- 
food  products,  the  form  of  certificate  shown  in  section  u  of  this  regulation  shall 
be  used. 

Paragraph  3.  When  the  shipment  is  made  under  exemption  and  consists  of 
meat  or  meat-food  product  which  has  not  been  inspected  and  passed,  the  form  of 


1  Formerly  Regulation  57,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 

2  Stocks  of  printed  certificates  now  on  hand  may  be  used,  but  as  new  supplies  are 
printed  they  should  conform  to  the  forms  prescribed. 

3  Formerly  Regulation  58,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 

4  Formerly  Regulation  65,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


Transportations  123 

certificate  shown  in  section  13  of  this  regulation  shall  be  used,  and  a  duplicate 
shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  ferry  company  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Paragraph  4.  When  the  shipment  consists  of  meat  or  meat-food  products  from 
animals  slaughtered  by  a  farmer  on  the  farm  and  which  have  not  been  inspected  and 
passed,  the  form  of  certificate  shown  in  section  14  of  this  regulation  shall  be  used, 
and  a  duplicate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  ferry  company  to  the  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Paragraph  5.  When  a  shipper's  certificate  for  meat  or  meat-food  products  has 
been  issued  and  is  on  file  with  the  initial  carrier  and  that  fact  is  shown  by  notation 
on  the  billing,  the  ferry  company  need  not  require  another  certificate. 

Section  iS.1  Imported  meat  or  meat-food  products  which  have  not  been  mixed 
or  compounded  with  or  added  to  domestic  meat  or  meat-food  products  may  be  trans- 
ported by  any  common  carrier  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia into  another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  if  the  packages  con- 
taining them  are  marked  ''Inspected  under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  June  30,  1906," 
when  received  for  transportation. 

Section  ip.2  Paragraph  i.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  which  have  been 
inspected  and  passed  and  so  marked,  and  which  have  been  transported  from  the 
establishments  in  which  they  were  prepared  into  the  channels  of  trade,  and  which 
are  alleged  or  known  to  have  become  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for 
human  food,  may  be  transported  in  interstate  commerce  only  under  the  following 
restrictions : 

Paragraph  2.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  inspected  and  passed  and  so  marked 
and  which  are  alleged  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human 
food  may  be  shipped  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  any 
official  establishment  in  the  same  or  a  different  State  or  Territory  if  a  written  permit 
in  duplicate  for  such  shipment  be  first  obtained  from  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the 
establishment  to  which  the  shipment  is  destined.  In  all  such  shipments  both  the 
original  and  duplicate  copies  of  the  permits  shall  be  surrendered  to  the  carrier 
accepting  the  meat  or  meat-food  product,  and  the  carrier  shall  require  the  shipper 
to  furnish  three  copies  of  the  form  of  certificate  hereinafter  given.  One  of  these 
certificates  and  the  duplicate  copy  of  the  permit  shall  be  retained  by  the  carrier; 
another  copy  of  the  certificate,  together  writh  the  original  permit,  shall  be  mailed  by 
the  carrier  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
the  third  copy  of  the  certificate  shall  be  addressed  and  mailed  by  the  carrier  to  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  inspector  in  charge  at  the  point  to  which  the  shipment 
is  consigned.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  shipment  at  the  establishment  the  inspector 
in  charge  shall  cause  a  careful  inspection  to  be  made  of  the  shipment,  to  determine 
whether  or  not  it  is  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  food.  Should 
the  meat  or  meat-food  product  contained  in  the  shipment  prove  to  be  unsound, 
unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  it  shall  at  once  be  stamped  "U.  S. 
Inspected  and  Condemned"  and  be  immediately  tanked  or  removed  to  the  con- 
demned room.  If  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  contained  in  the  shipment  shall 
prove  to  be  sound,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  the  inspector  shall  allow  the 
meat  or  meat-food  product  to  enter  the  establishment.  Meat  or  meat-food  products 
at  an  official  establishment  alleged  or  known  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  other- 
wise unfit  for  human,  food  shall  not  be  shipped  under  this  paragraph,  but  must  be 
disposed  of  at  the  establishment. 


1  Formerly  Regulation  64,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 
-  Formerly  Regulation  61,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


124     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

Paragraph  3.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  which  have  been  inspected  and 
passed  and  are  so  marked  and  are  alleged  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  other- 
wise unfit  for  human  food  may  be  returned  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  to  any  jobber,  wholesaler,  or  other  dealer  from  whom  the  said  meat 
or  meat-food  product  was  purchased,  if  a  written  permit,  in  duplicate,  for  such 
shipment  be  first  obtained  from  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  In 
all  such  shipments  both  the  original  and  duplicate  copies  of  the  permits  shall  be  sur- 
rendered to  the  carrier  accepting  the  meat  or  meat-food  product,  and  the  carrier 
shall  require  the  shipper  to  furnish  two  copies  of  the  form  of  certificate  hereinafter 
given.  One  of  these  certificates  and  the  duplicate  copy  of  the  permit  shall  be 
retained  by  the  carrier,  and  the  other  copy  of  the  certificate,  together  with  the  orig- 
inal permit,  shall  be  mailed  by  the  carrier  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  If  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  which  is  shipped 
under  this  section  shall  prove  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for 
human  food  it  may  be  reshipped  in  interstate  commerce  as  a  food  product. 

Paragraph  4.  The  shippers'  certificate  required  by  paragraphs  2  and  3  of  this 
section  shall  be  in  the  following  form,  and  shall  in  all  cases  show  a  description  and 
the  weight  of  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  :l 

Date 190. . . 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Consignor 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

Number  of  permit 


I  hereby  certify  that  the  following-described  meat  or  meat-food  products  have 
been  inspected  and  passed  according  to  the  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  and  are 
so  marked.  It  is  alleged  that  the  said  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  unsound, 
unhealthful,  unwholesome,  and  unfit  for  human  food. 

Kind  of  product  Amount  and  weight 


(Signature  of  shipper) 
(Business  or  occupation  of  shipper) 
(Address  of  shipper) 


As  evidence  to  connecting  carriers  that  the  proper  shipper's  certificate  as  required 
by  this  paragraph  is  on  file  with  the  initial  carrier,  the  waybills,  transfer  bills,  run- 
ning slips,  or  conductor's  cards  accompanying  the  shipments  of  meat  or  meat-food 

1  Attention  is  directed  to  the  meat-inspection  law,  which  provides  a  penalty  of 
a  fine  of  $10,000  and  imprisonment  for  two  years  for  any  person  who  ships  for 
human  consumption  in  interstate  or  foreign  trade  any  meat  or  meat-food  product 
which  is  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food. 


Transportations  125 

products,  made  under  paragraphs  2  and  3  of  this  section,  must  have  embodied  in, 
stamped  upon,  or  attached  to  the  same  a  signed  statement  in  the  following  form : 

(Name  of  railroad  company) 

Meat  or  meat-food  product  alleged  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  food,  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate  on  file  with  initial  carrier. 

( Signed)  Agent. 

Paragraph  5.  Uninspected  meat  or  meat-food  product,  or  meat  or  meat-food 
product  inspected  and  marked  and  which  is  known  to  have  become  unsound, 
unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  or  inedible  grease  or  tallow  or 
other  fat,  may  be  shipped  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia 
to  another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  or  to  a  foreign  country 
for  industrial  purposes.  No  such  shipment  shall  be  accepted  by  any  carrier  unless 
and  until  the  product  which  is  known  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise 
unfit  for  food  shall  have  been  denatured  or  otherwise  rendered  unavailable  for  food 
purposes.  The  carrier  shall  require  the  shipper  to  certify  in  w?riting  that  the  meat 
or  meat-food  product  has  been  so  denatured  or  otherwise  rendered  unavailable  for 
food  purposes.  This  certificate  of  the  shipper  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  product 
has  been  denatured  shall  be  forwarded  by  the  carrier  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  It  is  suggested  that  the  shipper's  certificate  of 
denaturing  required  for  shipments  made  under  this  paragraph  be  in  the  following 
form : 

Date 190. . . 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Consignor 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  following-described  inedible  meat  or  meat-food  products 
have  been  denatured  or  otherwise  rendered  unavailable  for  food  purposes. 

Kind  of  product  Amount  and  wreight 


(Signature  of  shipper) 
(Business  or  occupation  of  shipper) 
(Address  of  shipper) 


As  evidence  to  connecting  carriers  that  the  proper  shipper's  certificate  is  on 
file  with  the  initial  carrier,  the  waybills,  transfer  bills,  running  slips,  or  conductor's 
cards  accompanying  the  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  products  under  this  para- 
graph must  have  embodied  in,  stamped  upon,  or  attached  to  the  same  a  signed  state- 
ment in  the  following  form : 


126     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

(Name  of  railroad  company) 

Unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  food,  and  denatured  or  other- 
wise rendered  unavailible  for  food  purposes,  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate  on 
file  with  the  initial  carrier. 

(Signed)  Agent. 

Regulation  26,     Counterfeiting,  etc* 

Section  i.  It  is  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  for  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  officer,  agent,  or  employee  thereof  to  forge,  counter- 
feit, simulate,  or  falsely  represent,  or  without  proper  authority  to  use,  fail  to  use,  or 
detach,  or  knowingly  or  wrongfully  to  alter,  deface,  or  destroy,  or  to  fail  to  deface 
or  destroy  any  of  the  marks,  stamps,  tags,  labels  or  other  identification  devices  pro- 
vided for  by  law  or  by  these  regulations,  on  any  carcasses,  parts  of.  carcasses,  or  the 
food  product,  or  the  containers  thereof,  or  wrongfully  to  use,  deface,  or  destroy  any 
certificate  provided  for  by  law  or  by  these  regulations. 

Regulation  27.    Reports 

Section  i.  Reports  of  the  work  of  inspection  carried  on  in  every  official  estab- 
lishment shall  be  forwarded  to  the  Department  by  the  inspector  in  charge,  on  such 
blank  forms  and  in  such  manner  as  may  be  specified  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry. 

Section  2.  The  proprietors  of  official  establishments  shall  furnish  daily  to  the 
Department  employees  detailed  to  the  various  departments  accurate  information 
regarding  receipts,  shipments,  and  amounts  of  products  on  which  to  base  their  daily 
reports. 

Section  3.  Reports  on  sanitation  shall  be  made  at  stated  times  by  the  Depart 
ment  employees  in  charge  of  the  various  departments  to  the  inspector  in  charge  of 
the  station,  and  by  the  inspector  in  charge  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry.  If  any  insanitary  conditions  are  detected  by  any  Department  employee, 
such  conditions  shall  be  reported  immediately  to  the  inspector  in  charge,  who,  after 
investigation,  shall  report  them  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau. 

Regulation  28,     Appeals 

Section  i.  When  the  action  of  any  inspector  in  condemning  any  carcass  or  part 
thereof,  meat,  or  meat-food  product  is  questioned,  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  inspec- 
tor in  charge,  and  from  his  decision  appeal  may  be  made  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  or  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

Regulation  29,     Cooperation  with  Municipal  Authorities 

Section  i.  Inspectors  in  charge  are  direc.ed  to  notify  the  municipal  authorities 
of  the  character  of  inspection,  and  upon  request  to  advise  with  such  authorities  wiih 
8  view  to  preventing  the  entry  into  the  local  markels  of  diseased  animals  or  their 
products.  The  details  of  any  proposed  cooperative  arrangement  must  be  first  sub- 
mitted to  and  approved  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 


Law  Under  Which  the  Foregoing  Regulations  Are  Made         127 


L     Law  Under  Which  the  Foregoing  Regulations  Are  Made 

Extract  from  an  act  of  Congress  entitled  "An  act  making  appropriations  for  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  thirtieth,  nineteen  hun- 
dred and  seven,"  approved  June  30,  1906  (34  Stat.,  674). 

The  Meat'inspection  Amendment 

That  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  use  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  as 
hereinafter  provided,  of  meat  and  meat-food  products  which  are  unsound,  unhealth- 
ful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
at  his  discretion,  may  cause  to  be  made,  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose,  an 
examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  before  they  shall  be 
allowed  to  enter  into  any  slaughtering,  packing,  meat-canning,  rendering,  or  similar 
establishment,  in  which  they  are  to  be  slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat-food 
products  thereof  are  to  be  used  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce;  and  all  cattle, 
swine,  sheep,  and  goats  found  on  such  inspection  to  show  symptoms  of  disease  shall 
be  set  apart  and  slaughtered  separately  from  all  other  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats, 
and  when  so  slaughtered  the  carcasses  of  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  shall  be 
subject  to  a  careful  examination  and  inspection,  all  as  provided  by  the  rules  and 
regulations  to  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  herein  provided  for. 

That  for  the  purposes  hereinbefore  set  forth  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall 
cause  to  be  made  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose,  as  hereinafter  provided, 
a  post-mortem  examination  and  inspection  of  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  to  be  prepared  for  human  consumption  at  any  slaught- 
ering, meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  in  any 
State,  Territory,  or  the  District  of  Columbia  for  transportation  or  sale  as  articles  of 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce;  and  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  such  ani- 
mals found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food  shall  be 
marked,  stamped,  tagged,  or  labeled  as  "Inspected  and  Passed;"  and  said  inspectors 
shall  label,  mark,  stamp,  or  tag  as  "Inspected  and  Condemned,"  all  carcasses  and 
parts  thereof  of  animals  found  to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  other- 
wise unfit  for  human  food;  and  all  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  thus  inspected  and 
condemned  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes  by  the  said  establishment  in  the 
presence  of  an  inspector,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  inspectors 
from  any  such  establishment  which  fails  to  so  destroy  any  such  condemned  carcass 
or  part  thereof,  and  said  inspectors,  after  said  first  inspection  shall,  when  they  deem 
it  necessary,  reinspect  said  carcasses  or  parts  thereof  to  determine  whether  since  the 
first  inspection  the  same  have  become  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  in  any 
way  unfit  for  human  food,  and  if  any  carcass  or  any  part  thereof  shall,  upon  exami- 
nation and  inspection  subsequent  to  the  first  examination  and  inspection,  be  found 
to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  it  shall 
be  destroyed  for  food  purposes  by  the  said  establishment  in  the  presence  of  an 
inspector,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  inspectors  from  any  estab- 
lishment which  fails  to  so  destroy  any  such  condemned  carcass  or  part  thereof. 

The  foregoing  provisions  shall  apply  to  all  carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses  of 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  or  the  meat  or  meat  products  thereof  wrhich  may  be 
brought  into  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar 
establishment,  and  such  examination  and  inspection  shall  be  had  before  the  said 
carcasses  or  parts  thereof  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  into  any  department  wherein  the 
same  are  to  be  treated  and  prepared  for  meat-food  products ;  and  the  foregoing  pro- 
visions shall  also  apply  to  all  such  products  which,  after  having  been  issued  from 
any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establish- 
ment, shall  be  returned  to  the  same  or  to  any  similar  establishment  where  such 
inspection  is  maintained. 

That  for  the  purposes  hereinbefore  set  forth  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall 
cause  to  be  made  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose  an  examination  and 
inspection  of  all  meat-food  products  prepared  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  in 
any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment, 
and  for  the  purposes  of  any  examination  and  inspection  said  inspectors  shall  have 
access  at  all  times,  by  day  or  night,  whether  the  establishment  be  operated  or  not, 
to  every  part  of  said  establishment ;  and  said  inspectors  shall  mark,  stamp,  tag,  or 


128     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  U.  S.,  etc. 

label  as  " Inspected  and  Passed"  all  such  products  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  and 
wholesome,  and  which  contain  no  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredients  which 
render  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or 
unfit  for  human  food ;  and  said  inspectors  shall  label,  mark,  stamp,  or  tag  as 
"Inspected  and  Condemned"  all  such  products  'found  unsound,  unhealthful,  and 
unwholesome,  or  which  contain  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredients  which 
render  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  unfit 
for  human  food,  and  all  such  condemned  meat-food  products  shall  be  destroyed  for 
food  purposes,  as  hereinbefore  provided,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may 
remove  inspectors  from  any  establishment  which  fails  to  so  destroy  such  con- 
demned meat-food  products:  Provided,  That,  subject  to  the  rules  and  regulations 
of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  provisions  hereof  in  regard  to  preservatives  shall 
not  apply  to  meat-food  products  for  export  to  any  foreign  country,  and  which  are 
prepared  or  packed  according  to  the  specifications  or  directions  of  the  foreign  pur- 
chaser, when  no  substance  is  used  in  the  preparation  or  packing  thereof  in  conflict 
with  the  laws  of  the  foreign  country  to  which  said  article  is  to  be  exported ;  but  if 
said  article  shall  be  in  fact  sold  or  offered  for  sale  for  domestic  use  or  consumption, 
then  this  proviso  shall  not  exempt  said  article  from  the  operation  of  all  the  other 
provisions  of  this  act. 

That  when  any  meat  or  meat-food  product  prepared  for  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  which  has  been  inspected  as  hereinbefore  provided  and  marked  ' '  Inspected 
and  Passed"  shall  be  placed  or  packed  in  any  can,  pot,  tin,  canvas,  or  other  recep- 
tacle or  covering  in  any  establishment  where  inspection  under  the  provisions  of  this 
act  is  maintained,  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  preparing  said  product  shall  cause 
a  label  to  be  attached  to  said  can,  pot,  tin,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering, 
under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector,  which  label  shall  state  that  the  contents  thereof 
have  been  "Inspected  and  Passed"  under  the  provisions  of  this  act;  and  no  inspec- 
tion and  examination  of  meat  or  meat-food  products  deposited  or  enclosed  in  cans, 
tins,  pots,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering  in  any  establishment  where  inspec- 
tion under  the  provisions  of  this  act  is  maintained  shall  be  deemed  to  be  complete 
until  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  have  been  sealed  or  inclosed  in  said  can,  tin, 
pot,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector, 
and  no  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale  by  any  per- 
son, firm,  or  corporation  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  under  any  false  or  decep- 
tive name ;  but  established  trade  name  or  names  which  are  usual  to  such  products 
and  which  are  not  false  and  deceptive  and  which  shall  be  approved  by  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  are  permitted. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  to  be  made,  by  experts  in  sanitation  or 
by  other  competent  inspectors,  such  inspection  of  all  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salt- 
ing, packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishments  in  which  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and 
goats  are  slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat-food  products  thereof  are  prepared  for 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce  as  may  be  necessary  to  inform  himself  concerning  the 
sanitary  conditions  of  the  same,  and  to  prescribe  the  rules  and  regulations  of  sanita- 
tion under  which  such  establishments  shall  be  maintained ;  and  where  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  any  such  establishment  are  such  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  products 
are  rendered  unclean,  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for 
human  food,  he  shall  refuse  to  allow  said  meat  or  meat-food  products  to  be  labeled, 
marked,  stamped,  or  tagged  as  "Inspected  and  Passed." 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  an  examination  and  inspection  of 
all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  and  the  food  products  thereof,  slaughtered  and 
prepared  in  the  establishments  hereinbefore  described  for  the  purposes  of  interstate 
or  foreign  commerce  to  be  made  during  the  nighttime  as  well  as  during  the  day- 
time when  the  slaughtering  of  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  or  the  preparation 
of  said  food  products  is  conducted  during  the  nighttime. 

That  on  and  after  October  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  no  person,  firm,  or 
corporation  shall  transport  or  offer  for  transportation,  and  no  carrier  of  interstate  or 
foreign  commerce  shall  transport  or  receive  for  transportation  from  one  State  or 
Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  any  other  State  or  Territory  or  the  District 
of  Columbia,  or  to  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  or  to  any 
foreign  country,  any  carcasses  or  parts  thereof,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  thereof, 
which  have  not  been  inspected,  examined,  and  marked  as  "Inspected  and  Passed," 
in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  act  and  with  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed 
by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture:  Provided,  That  all  meat  and  meat-food  products 
on  hand  on  October  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  at  establishments  where  inspec- 
tion has  not  been  maintained,  or  which  have  been  inspected  under  existing  law, 


Law  Under  Which  the  Foregoing  Regulations  Are  Made         129 

shall  be  examined  and  labeled  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  shall  prescribe,  and  then  shall  be  allowed  to  be  sold  in  interstate  or  for- 
eign commerce. 

That  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  officer,  agent,  or  employee  thereof,  shall 
forge,  counterfeit,  simulate,  or  falsely  represent,  or  shall  without  proper  authority 
use,  fail  to  use,  or  detach,  or  shall  knowingly  or  wrongfully  alter,  deface,  or  destroy, 
or  fail  to  deface  or  destroy,  any  of  the  marks,  stamps,  tags,  labels,  or  other  identifi- 
cation devices  provided  for  in  this  act,  or  in  and  as  directed  by  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations prescribed  hereunder  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  on  any  carcasses,  parts 
of  carcasses,  or  the  food  product,  or  containers  thereof,  subject  to  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  or  any  certificate  in  relation  thereto,  authorized  or  required  by  this  act  or 
by  the  said  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  to  be  made  a  careful  inspection  of 
all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  intended  and  offered  for  export  to  foreign  coun- 
tries at  such  times  and  places,  and  in  such  manner  as  he  may  deem  proper,  to  ascer- 
tain whether  such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  free  from  disease. 

And  for  this  purpose  he  may  appoint  inspectors  who  shall  be  authorized  to  give 
an  official  certificate  clearly  stating  the  condition  in  which  such  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
and  goats  are  found. 

And  no  clearance  shall  be  given  to  any  vessel  having  on  board  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  or  goats  for  export  to  a  foreign  country  until  the  owner  or  shipper  of  such 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  has  a  certificate  from  the  inspector  herein  authorized  to 
be  appointed,  stating  that  the  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  are  sound  and 
healthy,  or  unless  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  have  waived  the  requirement 
of  such  certificate  for  export  to  the  particular  country  to  which  such  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  or  goats  are  to  be  exported. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  also  cause  to  be  made  a  careful  inspec- 
tion of  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  the 
meat  of  which,  fresh,  salted,  canned,  corned,  packed,  cured,  or  otherwise  prepared,  is 
intended  and  offered  for  export  to  any  foreign  country,  at  such  times  and  places  and 
in  such  manner  as  he  may  deem  proper. 

And  for  this  purpose  he  may  appoint  inspectors  who  shall  be  authorized  to  give 
an  official  certificate  stating  the  condition  in  which  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or 
goats,  and  the  meat  thereof,  are  found. 

And  no  clearance  shall  be  given  to  any  vessel  having  on  board  any  fresh,  salted, 
canned,  corned,  or  packed  beef,  mutton,  pork,  or  goat  meat,  being  the  meat  of  ani- 
mals killed  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  or  except  as  hereinbefore  provided  for 
export  to  and  sale  in  a  foreign  country  from  any  port  in  the  United  States,  until  the 
owner  or  shipper  thereof  shall  obtain  from  an  inspector  appointed  under  the  provi- 
sions of  this  act  a  certificate  that  the  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  were  sound 
and  healthy  at  the  time  of  inspection,  and  that  their  meat  is  sound  and  wholesome, 
unless  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  have  waived  the  requirements  of  such  cer- 
tificate for  the  country  to  which  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  or  meats  are  to 
be  exported. 

That  the  inspectors  provided  for  herein  shall  be  authorized  to  give  official  certifi- 
cates of  the  sound  and  wholesome  condition  of  the  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats, 
their  carcasses  and  products  as  herein  described,  and  one  copy  of  every  certificate 
granted  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  filed  in  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, another  copy  shall  be  delivered  to  the  owner  or  shipper,  and  when  the  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  or  their  carcasses  and  products  are  sent  abroad,  a  third  copy 
shall  be  delivered  to  the  chief  officer  of  the  vessel  on  which  the  shipment  shall  be 
made. 

That  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged  in  the  interstate  commerce  of  meat 
or  meat-food  products  shall  transport  or  offer  for  transportation,  sell  or  offer  to  sell 
any  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  in  any  State  or  Territory  or  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  or  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States,  other  than  in  the 
State  or  Territory  or  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  any  place  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  United  States  in  which  the  slaughtering,  packing,  canning,  rendering,  or 
other  similar  establishment  owned,  leased,  operated  by  said  firm,  person,  or  corpor- 
ation is  located  unless  and  until  said  person,  firm,  or  corporation  shall  have  com- 
plied with  all  of  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  officer  or  agent  of  any  such  person, 
firm,  or  corporation,  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  punished  on  conviction  thereof  by  a 
fine  of  not  exceeding  ten  thousand  dollars  or  imprisonment  for  a  period  not  more 
than  two  years,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court 
10 


130     Chap.  IV.    Regulations  Governing  Meat  Inspection  of  LJ.  S.,  etc. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  appoint  from  time  to  time  inspectors  to 
make  examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  the  inspec- 
tion of  which  is  hereby  provided  for,  and  of  all  carcasses  and  parts  thereof,  and  of 
all  meats  and  meat-food  products  thereof,  and  of  the  sanitary  conditions  of  all 
establishments  in  which  such  meat  and  meat-food  products  hereinbefore  described 
are  prepared ;  and  said  inspectors  shall  refuse  to  stamp,  mark,  tag,  or  label  any  car- 
cass or  any  part  thereof,  or  meat-food  product  therefrom,  prepared  in  any  estab- 
lishment hereinbefore  mentioned,  until  the  same  shall  have  actually  been  inspected 
and  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  and  to  con- 
tain no  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredients  which  render  such  meat-food 
product  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  unfit  for  human  food;  and  to  have 
been  prepared  under  proper  sanitary  conditions,  hereinbefore  provided  for;  and  shall 
perform  such  other  duties  as  are  provided  by  this  act  and  by  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions to  be  prescribed  by  said  Secretary  of  Agriculture;  and  said  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture shall,  from  time  to  time,  make  such  rules  and  regulations  as  are  necessary 
for  the  efficient  execution  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  all  inspections  and  exam- 
inations made  under  this  act  shall  be  such  and  made  in  such  manner  as  described  in 
the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  said  Secretary  of  Agriculture  not  incon- 
sistent with  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  agent  or  employee  of  any  person, 
firm,  or  corporation,  who  shall  give,  pay,  or  offer,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  any 
inspector,  deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  any  other  officer  or  employee  of  the 
United  States  authorized  to  perform  any  of  the  duties  prescribed  by  this  act  or  by 
the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  any  money  or  other  thing 
of  value,  with  intent  to  influence  said  inspector,  deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or 
other  officer  or  employee  of  the  United  States  in  the  discharge  of  any  duty  herein 
provided  for,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  felony  and,  upon  conviction  thereof,  shall 
be  punished  by  a  fine  not  less  than  five  thousand  dollars  nor  more  than  ten  thousand 
dollars  and  by  imprisonment  not  less  than  one  year  nor  more  than  three  years ;  and 
any  inspector,  deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  other  officer  or  employee  of  the 
United  States  authorized  to  perform  any  of  the  duties  prescribed  by  this  act  who 
shall  accept  any  money,  gift,  or  other  thing  of  value  from  any  person,  firm,  or  cor- 
poration, or  officers,  agents,  or  employees  thereof,  given  with  intent  to  influence  his 
official  action,  or  who  shall  receive  or  accept  from  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation 
engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any  gift,  money,  or  other  thing  of  value 
given  with  any  purpose  or  intent  whatsoever,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  felony 
and  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be  summarily  discharged  from  office  and  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  not  less  than  one  thousand  dollars  nor  more  than  ten  thousand 
dollars  and  by  imprisonment  not  less  than  one  year  nor  more  than  three  years. 

That  the  provisions  of  this  act  requiring  inspection  to  be  made  by  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  shall  not  apply  to  animals  slaughtered  by  any  farmer  on  the  farm 
and  sold  and  transported  as  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  nor  to  retail  butchers 
and  retail  dealers  in  meat  and  meat-food  products,  supplying  their  customers  :  Pro- 
vided, That  if  any  person  shall  sell  or  offer  for  sale  or  transportation  for  interstate 
or  foreign  commerce  any  meat  or  meat-food  products  which  are  diseased,  unsound, 
unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  knowing  that  such 
meat-food  products  are  intended  for  human  consumption,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding 
one  thousand  dollars  or  by  imprisonment  for  a  period  of  not  exceeding  one  year,  or 
by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment:  Provided  also,  That  the  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture is  authorized  to  maintain  the  inspection  in  this  act  provided  for  at  any  slaught- 
ering, meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  notwith- 
standing this  exception,  and  that  the  persons  operating  the  same  may  be  retail 
butchers  and  retail  dealers  or  farmers ;  and  where  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall 
establish  such  inspection  then  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  apply  notwithstanding 
this  exception. 

That  there  is  permanently  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the  Treasury  not 
otherwise  appropriated,  the  sum  of  three  million  dollars,  for  the  expenses  of  the 
inspection  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  and  the  meat  and  meat-food  products 
thereof  which  enter  into  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  and  for  all  expenses  neces- 
sary to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  this  act  relating  to  meat  inspection,  includ 
ing  rent  and  the  employment  of  labor  in  Washington  and  elsewhere,  for  each  year. 
And  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall,  in  his  annual  estimates  made  to  Congress, 
submit  a  statement  in  deail.  showing  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  such 
inspections  and  the  salary  or  per  diem  paid  to  each,  together  with  the  contingent 
expenses  of  such  inspectors  and  .where  they  have  been  and  are  employed. 


V,  Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure 
of  the  Inspection  Force 

As  the  meat-inspection  organization  in  the  United  States  varies  some- 
what from  this  organization  in  Germany,  it  is  deemed  essential  to  incor- 
porate in  this  text-book  the  conditions  applying  to  the  meat-inspection 
force  in  this  country,  and  also  to  describe  the  methods  of  procedure  which 
are  required  in  the  execution  of  the'ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspec- 
tion by  the  Government  inspector.  Inasmuch  as  this  subject  is  so  thor- 
oughly treated  by  Dr.  A.  D.  Melvin,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  in  his  work  on  the  "Federal  Meat  Inspection  Service,"1  he  will 
be  quoted  in  substance  in  the  following : 

L    Personnel  of  the  Inspection  Force 

The  Bureau's  employees  are  both  capable  and  expert.  The  men  in  charge  of  all 
stations  where  slaughtering  is  done,  and  the  men  who  do  the  post-mortem  work  at 
all  stations,  are  veterinarians.  These  men  must  first  have  successfully  completed  a 
three  years'  course  in  veterinary  medicine  at  a  reputable  veterinary  college.  The 
Department  recognizes  only  14  such  institutions,  excluding  several  so-called  colleges 
that  aspire  to  cover  this  field  of  knowledge.  The  Civil  Service  Commission  examines 
these  graduates,  and  about  50  per  cent,  of  those  examined  make  the  required  grade 
of  70. 

For  the  relief  of  those  who  think  that  everything  necessary  to  the  appointment 
of  a  man  in  this  service  is  a  letter  written  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  by  an 
influential  citizen,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Department  makes  absolutely  no  perma- 
nent appointments  except  of  men  whose  names  are  certified  to  it  by  the  Civil  Service 
Commission.  During  a  period  of  six  months  one  so  appointed  is  on  probation,  and 
if  he  fails  to  measure  up  to  the  requirements  he  is  dropped.  If  at  the  end  of  this  six 
months  he  attains  his  absolute  appointment,  he  is  not  at  once  freed  of  supervision 
and  clothed  with  full  authority  to  pass  or  condemn.  The  force  is  large,  and  he  is  so 
placed  on  it  under  experienced  inspectors  that  he  may  learn  the  law  and  regulations 
and  the  methods  of  their  application.  A  set  of  rules,  supplemented,  of  course,  by 
some  necessary  discretion  on  the  part  of  the  heads  of  the  service,  govern  his 
advancement  in  authority  and  salary.  On  the  latter  men  rests  the  burden  of  inspec 
tion.  The  Bureau  holds  them  responsible,  and  they  well  understand  that  their  pro 
motion  depends  on  efficient  and  faithful  service.  They  have  ample  opportunity  to 
become  experts  in  detecting  diseased  animals,  and  they  do.  The  Department 
demands  all  their  time  during  the  working  day,  and  a  man  must  be  dull  indeed  if 
in  the  days,  months,  and  years  spent  amid  the  swift  work  of  the  killing  floors  he 
fails  to  develop  a  most  masterly  dexterity  in  discovering  abnormalities  in  the  car- 
casses that  come  before  him. 


Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  125. 


UWIVPDQITV 


132          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

The  laboratory  inspectors  constitute  another  class  of  employees.  They  also  are 
selected  through  civil-service  examination  in  the  principles  of  bacteriology  and  chem- 
istry, with  special  application  to  meats. 

A  third  grade  of  employee  is  the  inspector's  assistant.  Being  under  the  direction 
of  the  veterinarian,  he  is  not  required  to  be  himself  regularly  educated  along  this  line. 
He  examines  live  stock,  tags  animals,  stamps  carcasses,  seals  cars,  patrols  the  houses 
at  night,  superintends  the  removal  and  tanking  of  condemned  carcasses — in  short, 
he  does  everything  he  can,  where  expert  pathological  knowledge  is  unnecessary,  to 
relieve  and  assist  the  veterinarian. 

The  meat  inspector  is  a  fourth  class.  He  is  expert  in  pickling,  salting,  smoking, 
and  otherwise  curing  meat.  He  likewise  enters  the  service  through  the  civil-service 
examinations,  and  his  previous  exprience  is  taken  into  account  in  grading  him.  By 
means  of  the  educated  senses  of  sight  and  smell  he  can  tell  when  a  piece  of  meat  is 
unfit,  and  he  knows  whether  it  is  irretrievably  bad  or  whether  it  can  be  utilized. 
This  class  of  employees  condemned  14,000,000  pounds  of  meat  in  the  fiscal 
year  1906-7. 

The  Bureau  selects  certain  of  the  most  experienced  veterinary  inspectors  and 
meat  inspectors,  divides  the  country  into  districts,  and  sends  these  men  traveling 
through  them,  visiting  every  station  and  every  plant.  Their  visits  are  unannounced, 
and  they  submit  reports  with  recommendations  to  the  Washington  office.  They  are 
able,  out  of  their  wider  experience,  to  instruct  the  inspectors  in  charge  at  the  various 
stations,  and  their  reports  are  of  great  value  to  the  Department  in  its  efforts  to 
secure  a  uniform  .  inspection  and  to  learn  of  insanitary  conditions  and  have  them 
corrected.  That  the  regulations  are  enforced  is  capable  of  demonstration  by 
an  examination  of  the  reports  of  the  number  of  animals  condemned.  Other  safe- 
guards, however,  are  provided.  The  law  promises  to  fine  not  less  than  $5.000  and 
to  imprison  for  at  least  a  year  any  man  who  gives  anything  of  value,  even  a  piece  of 
meat,  to  a  Government  employee  to  influence  him  in  the  performance  of  his  duties; 
it  is  stricter  still  with  such  employees,  for  it  holds  over  them  the  menace  of  similar 
fine  and  imprisonment  if  they  accept  anything  of  value,  no  matter  what  the  intent 
of  the  donor  or  the  purpose  of  the  gift  may  be.  It  is  thus  dangerous  for  the  packer 
to  bribe,  and  it  is  more  dangerous  still  for  the  employee  to  accept. 

The  Bureau  places  further  obstacles  in  the  way  of  collusion  between  inspector 
and  owner  by  frequent  changes  at  the  larger  stations  of  employees  from  house  to 
house,  and  by  changes,  less  frequent,  of  employees  from  station  to  station.  It  is 
working  constantly,  also,  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  inspection  at  all  stations.  Ft 
has  a  very  complex  system  of  reports,  and  its  experts  scrutinize  these  with  the  view 
of  discovering  abnormalities  in  results  and  making  the  proper  corrections.  Again, 
practically  all  the  operations  of  slaughtering  and  preparing  meats  are  open  to  the 
world,  and  are,  indeed,  in  the  larger  centers,  one  of  the  sights  to  which  visitors 
flock.  It  is  well  known  that  accredited  representatives  of  foreign  governments, 
expert  and  otherwise,  see  all  the  processes  of  inspection,  and  more  than  one  has 
satisfied  himself  and  his  government,  sometimes  to  the  surprise  of  both,  that 
inspection  is  all  that  it  is  claimed  to  be.  Publicists  also  spend  days  in  the  stock 
yards  and  packing  houses,  embodying  the  results  of  their  observations  in  articles  that 
have  recently  been  of  a  more  favorable  tone  than  they  were  one  or  two  years  ago. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  submitted  that  no  material  dishonesty  in  the  inspection  can 
long  exist,  in  view  of  the  above  methods  and  facts,  and  owing  further  to  the  invol- 
untary espionage  that  each  employee  undergoes  from  his  fellow-employees,  which, 
while  it  is  not  depended  upon  by  the  Department,  is  yet  a  powerful  factor  in  main  - 
taining  a  strict  integrity  in  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 


Action  in  General  133 

2.    The  Performance  of  Ante^mortem  and  Post-mortem 

Inspection 

For  the  carrying  on  of  the  ante-mo rt em  and  post-mortem  inspection, 
the  published  regulations  of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  prescribe  the 
detailed  requirements.  Similar  instructions  for  the  U.  S.  Inspector  of 
meats  are  contained  in  the  regulations  of  the  Federal  meat-inspection 
service,  B.  A.  I.  Order,  Xo.  150.  It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  dis- 
cuss here  only  a  few  technical  and  especially  important  conditions. 

A,     Action  in  General 

1.     Ante ''mortem  Inspection  of  Food  Animals 

The  performance  of  the  ante-mortem  inspection  is  regulated  by  the 
regulations  governing  the  enforcement  of  the  meat-inspection  law,  and 
does  not  necessitate  a  further  explanation  for  the  veterinary  inspector. 

Concerning  the  age  of  the  food  animals  the  most  important  informa- 
tion has  been  already  given  on  page  16. 

The  influence  of  transportation  on  the  condition  of  food  animals  was 
considered  on  page  7. 

Regarding  the  diseases  which  may  be  observed,  reference  should  be 
made  to  Chapter  VII. 

Concerning  the  judgment  on  living  food  animals  see  page  158.  That 
under  certain  conditions  the  application  of  slaughter  can  be  permitted 
only  after  a  period  of  rest,  was  already  mentioned  on  page  10.  The 
inspector  has  also  the  authority  to  request  that  the  slaughter  should  be 
undertaken  at  an  established  hour  and  in  his  presence.  A  reinspection 
must  be  made  should  the  slaughter  have  been  delayed  for  over  two  days 
after  permission  was  granted. 

[The  ante-mortem  inspection  in  the  United  States  is  governed  by 
B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  u,  the  carrying  out  of  which  is  described 
by  Dr.  A.  D.  Melvin,  in  his  previously  mentioned  work,  as  follows: 

As  conducted  at  present,  the  first  step  in  actual  inspection  is  the  examination  of 
the  living  animal.  The  law  does  not  absolutely  require  this,  but  places  it  within 
the  discretion  of  the  Secretary.  Government  inspectors  make  this  examination  in 
the  stock  yards  or  in  the  pens,  alleys,  etc.,  of  the  establishment  by  which  the  animals 
have  been  bought  and  in  the  slaughterhouse  of  which  they  are  proposed  to  be 
slaughtered,  and  no  animals  which  have  not  undergone  this  examination  are  allowed 
to  enter  the  slaughterhouse  proper.  The  pens  contain  from  as  low  as  10  to  as  high 
as  200  animals  each.  JThe  inspector  goes  into  the  pen  and  looks  carefully  over  each 
animal.  When  he  finds  one  that  to  his  mind  is  not  perfectly  sound  and  healthy  he 
or  his  assistant  affixes  to  its  ear  a  numbered  metal  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S. 
Suspect."  Such  animals  are  segregated  and  slaughtered  separately  from  other 
animals,  either  before  or  after  the  regular  course  of  the  killing.  If  the  post-mortem 
examination  of  an  animal  does  not  confirm  the  suspicions  aroused  by  the  appearance 


134          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

of  the  live  animal,  and  no  lesions  of  disease  are  found,  the  tag  is  taken  off  and  sent 
1o  the  office  of  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  station,  who  has  already  been  informed 
of  the  number  of  the  tag  after  it  was  affixed  on  suspicion,  and  the  carcass  is  sent 
along  as  edible  meat.  If  lesions  are  found  which  warrant  condemnation,  the  carcass 
is  sent  to  the  tank,  the  tag  being  removed  and  taken  with  a  report  to  the  office.] 

2,     Inspection  of  the  Slaughtered  Animals  (Meat  Inspection) 

For  the  examination  of  the  slaughtered  animals  exact  directions  are 
given  in  the  regulations  of  the  meat-inspection  law.  The  presence  of 
veterinary  inspectors  at  the  slaughter  is  urgently  desired  in  certain  dis- 
eases (for  instance,  peritonitis,  pleuritis,  pericarditis,  and  certain  abscess 
formations). 

Although  it  is  desirable  to  limit  the  work  of  inspection  to  those  hours 
showing  sufficient  daylight,  this  cannot  always  be  accomplished  for  obvi- 
ous reasons.  For  inspection  by  artificial  light  an  abundant,  and,  if  possi- 
ble, a  white  light  should  be  demanded ;  while  in  the  ambulatory  meat- 
inspection,  examinations  under  oil  or  plain  gas  light  in  the  winter  time 
cannot  be  entirely  prevented,  yet  they  should  be  positively  withheld  should 
there  be  a  suspicion  of  an  injurious  condition  of  the  entire  meat  (blood 

poisoning),  or  even  if  there  are 
color  changes  of  the  meat  (jaun- 
dice), in  which  case  examinations 
should  be  made  only  by  daylight. 
Before  beginning  the  examination 
it  should  be  established  that  not  a 
part  of  the  slaughtered  animal  is 
missing  and  that  nothing  has  been 
undertaken  to  change  the  appear- 
ance of  certain  parts  (scalding  of 
the  stomachs,  mesentery,  head, 
feet,  etc.).  The  separation  of  the 
intestines  from  the  mesentery  and 
the  emptying  of  the  stomach  and 
the  intestinal  contents,  as  well  as 

Fig     47.  Post-mortem    knife     and     case    the  cleaning  of  these   parts,   can- 
made  from  nickel,  after  Albrecht,  Dresden, 

Veterinary  High  School.  not  be  very  well  prohibited  on  ac- 

count of  their  spoiling,  should  the 

inspector  not  be  present  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  slaughter. 
On  the  other  hand,  cutting  the  mesentery  or  its  further  preparation  is  not 
permissible. 

(a)     Technique    of    the   Inspection 

The  inspection  of  the  slaughtered  animals  in  accordance  with  the 
above-mentioned  instructions  consists  in  the  following : 


Action  in  General 


135 


1.  Inspection  of  all  organs  and  parts. 

2.  Feeling  of  certain  parts,  as  lungs,  liver,  spleen,  uterus,  udder, 
tongue. 

3.  Incising  of  lymph  glands,  the  location  of  which  is  given  on  page 
43,  in  connection  with  figures  21-33;  also  muscles,  organs  with  cavities, 

and  suspected  or  diseased  parts.     How- 
ever this  should  be  restrained  as  much 
as  possible  in  tuberculosis,  suppurations, 
etc.,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  spread- 
ing the  infective  substance  and  the  con- 
tamination of  the  meat  with  this  mate- 
rial.   Suitable  knives,   with  cases,  espe- 
cially well  adapted   for  the  ambulatory 
inspection,    and     which    can    be    easily 
cleansed  and  disinfected,  are  illustrated 
under    Figs.    47-49.      According   to   the 
regulations  the  knives  of  the  inspectors 
should  be  smooth  and  free 
from   scratches   and   splits. 
For     the     disinfection     of 
knives  and  their  cases  boil- 
ing in  a  2  per  cent,   soda 
solution  is  sufficient. 

4.  Squeezing  out  the  con- 
tents of  the  passages  and 
the  cavities  or  organs  (bile 
ducts  of  the  liver,  cut  sur- 
face of  the  lungs,  etc.).  Be- 
sides, under  special  condi- 
tions   the    following   addi- 
tional methods  may  also  be 
applied : 

5.  Reaction  test  of  mus- 
cles with  blue  or  red  litmus 
paper,  which  after  moisten- 
ing should  be  pressed  with 

a  forceps  or  knife  against  a  fresh  cut  surface  of  the  muscles.  In  this 
work  the  cuts  must  be  made  at  various  intervals  and  in  muscles  lying  at 
various  distances  apart.  (See  page  38.) 

6.  Microscopic  examinations  of  blood,  muscles,  various  tissues,  dis- 
eased parts,  secretions  and  excretions,  parasites,  etc. 

7.  Bacteriological    examinations   of   blood,    parenchymatous    fluids, 
etc.,  in  infectious  diseases. 


Fig.  48.  Case  for  post- 
mortem knives  after 
Tempel,  of  the  firm 
Hauptner-Berlin. 


Fig.  49  Post-mor 
tern  knife  after  Koch, 
of  the  firm  Hauptner- 
Berlin. 


136         Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

8.  Bacteriological  examinations  through  the  inoculation  of  culture 
media,  inoculations  of  test  animals,  etc. 

Directions  for  the  technical  procedure  prescribed  for  the  veterinary 
examination  of  imported  meat  have  already  been  given,  and  they  may 
also  be  applied  in  the  inspection  of  fresh-slaughtered  animals  in  case  of 
necessity. 

A  bacteriological  meat  inspection  was  first  recommended  by  Basenau  for 
doubtful  cases  of  affections,  especially  in  emergency  slaughters,  in  which  an  unob- 
jectionable positive  result  cannot  be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  In  such  an  inspec- 
tion bacterial  blood  intoxications  are  included  first  of  all  (see  Chap.  VII,  Sec.  6), 
and  a  diagnosis  even  in  these  cases  may  prove  quite  difficult.  Basenau  himself  gives 
the  following  directions :  "It  is  practicable  to  undertake  the  examination  24  hours 
after  slaughter,  as  all  the  meat-poisoning  bacteria  grow  even  at  a  low  temperature, 
thereby  increasing  their  numbers,  which  facilitates  the  examination.  In  this  study 
i!  is  presumed  that  after  slaughter  the  stomach,  intestines,  etc.,  were  removed  in  the 
usual  order.  This  excludes  the  possibility  that  bacteria,  which  may  be  found  in 
the  inside  of  the  meat  have  reached  that  point  through  post-mortem  invasion  from 
the  intestines,  since,  according  to  our  numerous  experiences  which  have  recently 
been  confirmed  by  A.  Chillees,  microorganisms  are  not  present  in  the  inside  of  the 
meat  of  healthy  animals  even  after  a  longer  time  following  slaughter.  Then  from 
the  inside  of  the  meat,  which  is  rich  in  connective  tissue,  cover-glass  preparations 
are  made  and  gelatin  plates  are  inoculated.  Gelatin  plates  suffice  perfectly  for  this 
purpose,  if  Forster's  gelatin  with  a  high  melting  point  is  used.  At  the  same  time 
two  mice  are  fed  with  raw  pieces  of  the  meat  and  two  others  are  fed  with  meat 
which  has  been  exposed  to  100°  C.  for  one  hour. 

If  there  are  no  microorganisms  present  in  the  smear  preparations,  and  if  no 
colonies  will  develop  inside  of  24  hours  on  the  plates,  then  the  meat  should  be  released 
without  any  further  action. 

If  the  presence  of  bacteria  is  established  as  a  result  of  these  preparations  or 
plates,  then  the  meat  should  be  temporarily  held  in  a  suitable  place  and  the  results 
of  the  animal  experiments,  which,  when  positive,  appear  in  most  cases  inside  of 
three  days,  should  be  taken  into  consideration  for  final  judgment.  Should  the  mice, 
which  were  fed  with  the  raw  meat  die,  while  those  given  the  boiled  meat  remain 
well,  it  serves  to  prove  that  through  the  boiling  the  toxic  substances  were  destroyed. 
Then,  in  accordance  with  present  experiences,  the  meat  can  be  released  for  con- 
sumption without  danger  to  human  health,  after  a  sufficient  sterilization  in  the  steam 
apparatus.  If  there  is  no  sterilizing  apparatus  present,  then  the  proof  of  the  pres- 
ence of  a  larger  number  of  bacteria  in  the  meat  would  be  sufficient  for  its  condem- 
nation. Should  the  mice  fed  with  the  boiled  material  containing  the  bacteria  suc- 
cumb, then  the  meat  should  be  withheld  from  commerce  and  permission  should  only 
be  given  for  its  technical  utilization." 

As  a  simplification  of  Basenau's  plating  method  Ostertag  recommends  the 
sowing  on  slant  agar,  as  agar  tubes  can  be  carried  easily  in  a  sterile  condition. 

v.  Drigalski  recommends  surface  sowings  on  alkaline  lactose-litmus-agar  with 
particles  of  the  spleen  and  muscles  and  besides  the  inoculation  of  similar  particles 
into  slightly  alkaline  nutrient  bouillon  at  22°  C.  until  the  following  day  for  the  pur- 
pose of  growing  the  organism,  and  then  to  inoculate  new  plates  from  the  growth  in 
bouillon.  If  the  growth  on  the  plates  shows  predominantly  blueish,  transparent 


Action  in  General  137 

colonies,  this  is  sufficient  to  suspect  the  presence  of  a  specific  infection  of  the  con- 
cerned animal  (bacillus  enteritidis,  Gartner).  For  further  determinations  test 
inoculations  have  to  be  undertaken. 

9.  Chemical  examinations  may  be  necessary  for  certain  purposes 
(testing  for  the  use  of  preservative  substances). 

10.  Examination  for  odor  is  in  many  cases  requisite.     It  is  espe- 
cially necessary,  even  though  it  is  not  final,  in  cases  where  the  boiling  test 
has  to  be  made  for  the  examination  of  meat  for  spoiling. 

11.  The  boiling  test  is  frequently  of  great  aid  in  the  examination 
of  the  odor  and  taste  of  meat. 

The  same  should  always  be  carried  out  with  chilled  meat  24  hours  after 
slaughter,  as  certain  odor  and  taste  peculiarities  undergo  a  change  in  cooled  meat. 
It  is  also  advisable  not  to  place  the  meat  to  be  examined  into  boiling  water,  but  by 
placing  it  into  a  covered  receptacle  with  cold  water  it  may  be  gradually  heated  to  a 
boiling  point,  and  then  from  time  to  time  the  developing  steam  should  be  tested 
for  the  odor.  The  taste  of  the  meat  and  the  meat  broth  should  be  determined  after 
the  meat  is  thoroughly  boiled  through.  The  boiling  test  should  be  especially 
undertaken  with  the  meat  of  boars,  cryptorchids,  male  goats,  emergency  slaughtered 
animals,  when  suspicious  of  an  administration  of  drugs  that  may  give  a  taste  or  odor 
to  the  meat  (also  large  quantities  of  iodide  of  potassium),  or  inhalation  of  bad- 
smelling  gases  and  vapors.  Further,  there  are  pronounced  changes  in  the  odor 
of  meat  when  very  offensive  abscesses  are  encapsulated  in  large  body  cavities,  in 
certain  forms  of  icterus  of  hogs,  in  parasitism  of  calves,  etc. 

(b)     Procedure  of  Inspection 

[The  procedure  of  the  post-mortem  inspection  as  it  is  conducted  in 
the  United  States  is  described  by  Doctor  Melvin  in  the  following : 

At  the  first  exposure  of  the  glands  when  the  head  is  severed — these  being  com- 
mon seats  of  tubercular  infection — a  Federal  inspector  makes  an  examination  for 
evidences  of  disease,  himself  cutting  into  the  glands,  if  necessary.  Another  inspec- 
tor stands  at  the  elbow  of  the  gutter  and,  as  the  viscera  are  revealed,  watches  with 
practiced  eye  for  abnormalities,  carefully  examining  and  handling  the  various  parts 
in  order  that  any  obscure  indication  of  disease  may  be  discovered.  The  Bureau 
requires  this  inspector  to  handle  the  viscera  and,  if  necessary,  to  cut  into  them. 
This  is  rapid  as  well  as  exacting  work,  and  the  head  and  visceral  inspectors  fre- 
quently exchange  places,  or  the  visceral  inspector  is  relieved  by  another,  after  two 
hours'  work. 

When  the  inspector  finds  a  diseased  carcass  he  attaches  to  it,  by  means  of  a  wire 
and  seal,  a  paper  tag  with  the  words  "U.  S.  Retained"  on  it  and  numbered  to  corre- 
spond with  the  number  on  the  stub  from  which  it  is  taken.  He  sends  the  numbered 
stub  to  the  office  with  his  report.  The  carcass,  with  the  parts  that  have  been  separa- 
ted, none  of  which  israllowed  to  lose  its  identity,  is  now  sent  directly  to  a  compart- 
ment called  the  "retaining  room."  The  Government  requires  this  important  room  to 
be  rat  proqf,  well  lighted,  *to  have  floors  of  cement,  or  of  metal  or  brick  laid  in 
cement,  and  to  be  provided  with  facilities  for  locking.  The  Government  also  pro- 


138          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

vides  a  special  lock  for  the  room,  and  the  keys  remain  in  the  custody  of  the  inspec- 
tor. At  convenient  periods  the  retained  carcasses  undergo  in  this  room  at  the  hands 
of  other  inspectors  a  more  leisurely  and  careful  inspection. 

This  is  the  final  step  in  the  post-mortem  examination.  The  inspectors  here  have 
a  good  deal  of  personal  discretion.  Certain  definite  rules  are  laid  down  by  the 
Bureau,  but  something  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  inspectors.  They  must 
pass  upon  the  question  of  the  extent  of  the  affection  and  decide  whether  or  not  the 
whole  carcass  or  only  parts  of  it  should  go  to  the  tank.  Not  being  pushed  by  the 
exigencies  of  the  rapid  work  on  the  killing  beds  and  the  necessity  of  keeping  up 
with  the  never-ending  stream  of  carcasses,  they  are  deliberate  and  careful  in  making 
their  examinations  and  in  forming  their  judgment.  Carcasses  which  they  decide  to 
be  fit  for  food  they  permit  to  be  removed  and  placed  with  other  healthy  carcasses, 
which  have  been  passed  on  the  first  inspection.  They  take  off  the  "U.  S.  Retained" 
tag,  return  it  with  their  report  to  the  office,  and  stamp  it  "U.  S.  Inspected  and 
passed." 

When  their  examination  confirms  the  suspicious  indications  of  the  first  exami- 
nation, however,  they  stamp  conspicuously  on  the  carcass,  also  on  the  tag,  the 
words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned."  The  carcass  is  removed  immediately 
from  the  retaining  room  under  the  eye  of  a  Government  employee,  and  goes  either 
to  the  tank  or,  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  tank  it  immediately,  to  the  condemned-meat 
room,  which,  like  the  retaining  room,  is  provided  with  a  lock,  the  key  of  which  is 
kept  by  a  Government  employee,  and  which  is  opened  only  by  Government 
employees.  As  soon  as  practicable  Government  men  remove  the  carcass  to  the 
tank,  keeping  a  record  of  the  tag  numbers,  which  they  forward  with  their  reports 
to  the  office.  At  houses  which  do  not  provide  a  "condemned  room,"  the  carcass  is 
sent  directly  to  the  tank.  About  25  per  cent,  of  the  carcasses  retained  are 
condemned. 

All  carcasses,  both  fit  and  unfit,  having  been  removed  from  the  retaining  room, 
the  floor  and  walls  are  washed  with  hot  water  and  disinfected  in  order  that  the 
room  may  be  clean  and  free  from  disease  infection  for  the  reception  of  the  next 
batch  of  retained  carcasses.] 

In  the  performance  of  meat  inspection  it  is  advisable  to  maintain  the 
following  method  of  procedure  in  the  inspection  of  the  various  species  of 
animals : 

i.  CATTLE. —  (a)  The  (suitably  prepared)  head. — Viewing,  cutting 
the  lymph  glands  (retropharangeal,  submaxillary,  parotid  lymph  glands), 
and  tonsils  in  sections.  Viewing  and  feeling  of  the  tongue,  applying 
extensive  cuts  to  the  muscles  of  mastication  on  both  sides  (beginning  at 
the  maxillary  border  and  running  parallel  with  the  branches  of  the  infe- 
rior maxilla. 

(b)      Viscera  of  the  Thoracic  Cavity 

i.  Lungs. — Viewing  and  palpating. — Cutting  the  lymph  glands  in 
sections  (right  and  left  bronchial  glands,  also  the  mediastinal  glands)  [the 
anterior  mediastinal  glands  are  hanging,  as  a  rule,  near  the  thoracic 
entrance  on  the  forequarter] ,  and  a  cross-section  through  each  lobe  of  the 
lungs  at  about  the  last  third,  extending  to  the  larger  bronchial  tubes.  In 


Action  in  General  139 

cutting  the  bronchial  gland  it  is  also  advisable  to  cut  into  the  principal 
bronchi  (look  for  evidence  of  aspiration  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach). 
2.  Heart. — Opening  of  the  pericardium ;  viewing  and  opening  of 
both  ventricles  by  a  longitudinal  cut  which  should  extend  through  the 
septum. 

(c)      Viscera  of  the  Abdominal  and  Pelvic  Cavity 

1.  Stomach,  mesentery,  omentum  with  small  and  large  intestines. 
Viewing  and  cutting  their  lymph  glands. 

2.  Liver. — Viewing  of  both  surfaces,  feeling  and  cutting  .the  lymph 
glands   lying  around  the  portal  ring ;  cross-section  through  the  larger  bile 
ducts  on  the  gastric  surface  and  in  the  Spigelian  lobe. 

3.  Spleen. — Palpation  and  cutting  for  the  examination  of  the  pulp. 

4.  Urinary  Bladder. — Viewing  and  cutting  only  if  it  shows  a  dis- 
eased condition. 

5.  Uterus  with   Vagina  and   Vulva. — Viewing  and  cutting  trans- 
versely through  both  horns  of  the  uterus,    and    also    longitudinally,    if 
necessary. 

6.  Udder. — Feeling,  viewing,  and  cutting  the  organ  according  to 
necessity ;  cutting  of  the  lymph  glands,  which  occasionally  remain  attached 
to  the  hindquarter. 

In  male  cattle,  the  testicles  with  the  penis  and  the  accessory  sexual 
lymph  glands  are  to  be  viewed  instead  of  the  organs  mentioned  in  5 
and  6. 

(d)     The  Carcass  Proper 

1.  In  every  case  viewing  of  the  serous  coverings  of  the  large  body 
cavities,  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  accessible  meat  and  bones,  the  kidneys 
loosened  from  their  fat  envelope,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  meat  quarters ; 
in  addition  the  kidney  lymph  glands  should  be  cut. 

2.  In   suspicious   cases,   especially  in   emergency  slaughter  and   in 
tuberculosis  with  extension  through  the  systemic  circulation,  namely,  the 
portal  and  pulmonary  circulation,  or  the  occurrence  of  extensively  soft- 
ened areas  or  in  pronounced  affections  of  the  serous  membranes,  and  of 
the  uterus,  the  carcass  should  be  cut  into: 

(a)  The  body  wall  lymph  glands:  inferior  cervical  lymph  glands 
(including  also  the  anterior  mediastinal  glands),  lymph  glands  of  the 
superior  and  inferior  thoracic  walls,  lumbar,  internal  iliac  and  external 
ischiac  lymph  glands. 

(b)  The  body  lymph  glands  proper ;  prescapular,  axillary,  external 
iliac,  popliteal,  and  superficial  inguinal  lymph  glands. 

(2)  CALF. —  (a)  Inspection  of  the  viscera,  thoracic  and  abdominal 
cavities  as  in  cattle,  omitting  the  cutting  of  bile  ducts,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  especially  the  umbilical  vein ;  the  kidneys  should  only  be  loos- 
ened from  the  fat  capsule  in  suspicious  cases. 


140          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

(b)  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  navel  and  to  the  joints 
of  the  carcass,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  only  partially  skinned.  Extensive  lymph 
gland  examinations  under  such  conditions  as  were  given  for  cattle  should 
be  carried  out  in  the  same  manner.  An  inspection  for  measles  (cutting 
into  the  heart  and  muscles  of  mastication,  examination  of  the  tongue), 
should  only  take  place  in  calves  over  6  weeks  of  age,  except  in  suspicious 
cases ;  likewise  the  lymph  glands  of  the  head  should  be  only  cut  in  cases  of 
suspicion. 

3,  SHEEP  AND  GOAT. — The  examination  is  conducted  the  same  as  in 
calves.     The  cutting  of  the  heart  and  the  head  and  pulmonary  lymph 
glands  is  only  undertaken  in  cases  of  suspicion.     Likewise  an  inspection 
of  the  body  lymph  glands  should  be  made  only  under  those  conditions 
which  apply  for  cattle. 

4.  HOG. — Before  the  inspection,  the  vertebral  column  must  be  split 
and  the  abdominal  fat  (leaf  lard)   must  be  separated  from  the  abdominal 
muscles. 

(a)  Pluck  (haslets)  :    Viewing  the  tongue  and  the  muscles  on  its 
inferior  surface,  the  muscles  of  the  larynx  and  of  the  heart  and  cutting 
into  the  latter.     Lungs    (cross-section  through  the  posterior  portion)  : 
incising  the  bronchial  lymph  glands.     Liver :    Viewing,  palpating,  cutting 
the  lymph  glands  (for  the  absent  mediastinal  glands,  examine  the  middle 
bronchial  gland  at  the  bifurcation  of  the  trachea ;  the  portal  glands,  as  a 
rule,  are  attached  to  the  mesentery  near  the  pancreas). 

(b)  Mesentery  with  stomach,  intestines,  spleen,  omentum,  urinary 
bladder  and  uterus.    Viewing,  palpating,  cutting  the  gastric  (and  if  pres- 
ent, the  attached  portal)   lymph  glands,  also  the  mesenteric  lymph  glands 
of  the  small  and  large  intestines. 

(c)  The  carcass. 

1.  In  every  case  view  the  serous  linings  of  the  body  cavities,  the 
accessible  parts,  and  cut  surfaces  of  the  meat,  bones,  and  surface  of  the 
skin ;  incise  the  submaxillary  and  the  superior  cervical  lymph  glands. 

2.  In  a  suspicious  case  (under  conditions  as  applied  to  cattle),  incise 
the  superior,  middle,  and  inferior  cervical  lymph  glands,  internal  iliac  and 
external  ischiac  lymph  glands,  the  prescapular,  external   iliac,  popliteal 
and  superficial  inguinal  glands.     The  external  ischiac  lymph  glands  lay 
as  a  rule  superficially,  but  they  are  also  frequently  detached   from  the 
pelvic  wall,  on  the  rectum  :  the  lymph  glands   of  the  inferior  thoracic  wall 
are  mostly  absent,  those  of  the  superior  thoracic  wall  are  frequently  cut 
off  with  portions  of  the  aorta,  in  the  evisceration  of  the  pluck ;  as  a  rule, 
the  axillary  lymph  glands  are  also  absent. 

At  the  request  of  the  owner  and  if  there  is  no  reason  for  suspicion, 
the  splitting  of  the  vertebral  column  may  be  waived  and  this  is  also 
omitted  in  suckling  pigs. 


Action  in  General 


141 


5.  HORSE. — The  inspection  is  carried  out  practically  as  in  cattle,  but 
to  make  a  thorough  examination  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane,  the  head 
must  be  split  longitudinally,  and  the  septum  nasi  should  be  taken  out 
in  every  case. 


Fig.  50.     Transverse  section  through  the  neck  of  a  bull 


6.  On  DOGS  the  inspection  is  fol- 
lowed in  the  same  manner  as  has 
been  described  for  small  stock. 

In  emergency  slaughter  the  in- 
spection must  be  carried  out  with 
especial  care,  and  particularly 
where  special  instructions  have  been 
given  to  the  inspectors  by  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  various  allied 
states.  For  instance,  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony,  in  1906,  enacted  the 
following : 

"In  an  emergency  slaughter  the  in- 
spector should  be  especially  careful 
about  the  presence  of  all  the  organs,  and 
should  there  remain  the  slightest  suspi- 
cion after  the  first  inspection  as  to  the 
wholesomeness  of  the  meat  for  human 
consumption  he  should  undertake  a  sec- 
ond inspection  on  the  slaughtered  ani- 
mal. Especially  if  there  is  a  suspicion 
of  blood  poisoning  it  is  necessary  to  as- 
certain whether  early  changes  will  ap- 
pear in  connection  with  the  keeping 
quality,  color  and  odor  of  the  meat ; 
b.esides  a  boiling  test  should  also  be  un- 
dertaken with  the  meat.  A  repetition  of 
the  inspection  is  always  necessary  if  for 
an  exceptional  cause  the  inspection  was 
made  by  artificial  light.  It  must  be 
apparent,  however,  that  the  second  in- 
spection should  not  be  delayed  too  long, 


Fig.  51.  Median  side  of  the  right 
hind-quarter  of  a  bull;  a,  cut  surface  of 
the  muse,  gracilis;  b,  external  inguinal 
ring  c,  scrotal  fat  tissue;  d,  part  of 
the  muse,  bulbo-cavernosus  (represented 
somewhat  enlarged)  ;  e,  tuberculum  pu- 
bicum ;  f,  fat  capsule  of  the  kidney. 


142          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 


thus  permitting  the  questionable  meat  to  become  affected  by  putrefactive  changes. 
Therefore  in  the  summer  time  the  second  inspection  should  never  be  undertaken  later 
than  24  hours  after  the  slaughter." 


Fig.  54.  Median  side  of  a  right 
hind-quarter  of  a  cow ;  a,  cut  surface 
of  the  muse,  gracilis ;  b,  udder ;  c, 
tuberculum  pubicum ;  d,  iat  capsule 
of  the  kidnev. 


Fig.  52.  Trans- 
verse section 
through  the  neck  of 
a  steer. 


Fig.  53-  Trans- 
verse  section 
through  the  neck 
of  a  cow. 


(c)  Indications     of     age     of     the 
slaughtered    animals   were   mentioned 
on  page  16. 

(d)  The   determination   of  the  sex 
in    the    dressed    animals    may    ensue 
from  the  following  indications : 

I        CATTLE 

The  bulls  are  conspicuous  by  their 
strong  development  of  the  muscles, 
especially  on  the  withers  (Fig.  50) 
and  shoulders,  as  well  as  by  their 
compact  development  in  general.  The 
color  of  the  meat  is  in  general  darker 
(page  57),  the  quantity  of  fat  is 
smaller  than  in  steers  and  cows.  On 
the  hind  quarters  the  following  is 
conspicuous  (Fig.  51)  :  The  opened 
inguinal  canal,  the  small  quantity  of 
scrotal  fat,  the  triangular  or  irregular 
rhomboidal-shaped  cut  section  of  the 
gracilis  muscles,  the  place  of  attach- 
ment of  which  on  the  ischial  portion 
of  the  pelvic  floor  is,  as  a  rule,  covered 
with  fasciae  and  fat  tissue ;  on  the 
ischial  notch  there  generally  remains 
a  large  portion  of  the  bulbo-caverno- 


Action  in  General  143 

sus  muscle  sometimes  with  adhering  parts  of  the  corpora  cavernosa  of  the 
penis ;  the  striking  angularity  of  the  pelvic  floor  with  the  strongly  devel- 
oped tuberculum  pubicum,  and  the  slightly  developed  fat  capsule  of  the 
kidneys.  Sometimes  the  channel  of  the  penis  can  be  followed  in  the  fat 
on  the  inner  surface  of  the  thigh  and  the  abdominal  wall. 

In  steers  the  development  of  the  body  is  not  as  compact,  and  espe- 
cially the  muscles  of  the  neck  and  withers  are  not  as  well  developed 
(Fig.  52)  ;  the  color  of  the  muscles  is  also  lighter  (page  57)  than  in  the 
bull;  the  development  of  the  fat  is  always  greater,  the  inguinal  canal  is 
closed  and  the  scrotal  region  contains  a  large  quantity  of  fat  (cod  fat) 


Fig-  55  Fig.  56 

Fig.  55.  Right  hind-quarter  of  a  castrated  male  hog.  i,  ischio-pubic  symphysis 
2,  first  sacral  vertebra;  in,  muse,  bulbo-cavernosus  enclosing  a  portion  of  the  corpus 
cavernosum  of  the  penis;  H.  castration  scar;  r,  groove  of  the  penis  in  the  fat  tissue. 

Fig.  56.  Right  hind-quarter  of  a  female  hog.  Here  comes  into  consideration  the 
bean-shaped  cross-section  of  the  muse,  gracilis  laying  distally  (in  the  picture  above) 
from  the  ischio-pubic  symphysis. 

The  cows  are  characterized  by  a  more  slender,  finer  development  of  the 
body ;  the  muscles  are  not  as  well  developed  and  their  color  is  lighter 
(page  57,  Fig.  53)  ;  the  color  of  the  fat  is  sometimes  conspicuously  yel- 
low ;  on  the  hind  quarter  the  large  loose  udder  is  noticeable ;  after  being 
cut  away  it  leaves'  a  defect  in  the  posterior  abdominal  region :  the  cut  sur- 
face of  the  gracilis  muscle  is  bean  or  crescent  shaped  and  reaches  to  the 
ischial  notch ;  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  appears  only  slightly  angular  or 
arched ;  the  tuberculum  pubicum  is  not  well  developed  ( Fig.  54) .  The 


144          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

heifers  may  be  distinguished  from  the  cows  by  their  slightly  developed 
milkless  udder,  which  in  well  fattened  animals  is  considerably  intermixed 
with  fat. 

2.  CALVES 

Bull  calves  are  easily  recognized  by  the  small  testicles,  the  openings 
in  the  inguinal  canal,  the  stump  of  the  penis,  etc.,  and  by  the  ischial  notch, 
while  heifer  calves  are  recognized  by  the  presence  of  the  udder  as  men- 
tioned above. 

Calves  in  the  skin.  In  bull  calves  the  scrotum  and  the  brush  (a  tuft 
of  long  hairs  at  the  orifice  of  the  sheath)  are  present.  In  heifer  calves  the 
teats,  which  are  present  in  both  sexes,  are  better  developd. 

3.    SHEEP    AND.   GOATS 

The  distinguishing  of  rams  from  wethers  and  ewes  has  to  be  followed 
by  the  same  indication  as  in  cattle.  In  bucks  the  peculiar  sexual  odor  is 
conspicuous  (Chap.  VII,  Sect.  i). 

4.  HOGS 

In  boars,  besides  the  small  quantity  of  fat  deposits  there  is  strikingly 
noticeable  the  dark  color  of  the  muscles,  the  thickness  of  the  skin  on  the 
neck  and  shoulders,  as  well  as  the  strong  sexual  odor  (Chap.  VII,  i).  If 
the  testicles  with  the  scrotum  have  been  cut  out,  the  large  skin  defect 
becomes  conspicuous.  Besides,  the  other  remaining  parts  of  the  penis  and 
the  bulbo-cavernosus  muscle,  the  channel  of  the  penis,  and  the  cut  surface 
of  the  gracilis  muscles  (Fig.  55)  appear  in  a  condition  similar  to  bulls  The 
opening  cut  of  the  abdomen  shows  in  the  navel  region  on  both  sides,  or 
more  to  one  side  a  defect  as  a  result  of  a  cutting  out  of  the  navel  sac. 
Cryptorchid  boars  may  appear  according  to  the  functional  ability  of  the 
testicles  more  or  less  as  boars  or  castrated  animals ;  this  also  applies  to  the 
so-called  stags  (page  2). 

The  sexual  characteristics  of  the  slaughtered  castrated  male  hogs  are 
in  general  very  much  the  same  as  in  boars ;  however,  the  castration  scars 
(Fig.  55n)  are  noticeable  on  the  posterior  contour  of  the  leg,  and  also 
the  development  of  the  body  resembles  very  much  that  of  the  female 
hogs. 

In  female  hogs  the  pelvis  appears  wider,  and  the  posterior  pelvic 
notch  larger  than  in  male  animals ;  the  cut  surface  of  the  gracilis  muscle 
is  bean  shaped ;  on  the  opening  cut  of  the  abdomen  the  place  of  the 
excision  of  the  navel  is  not  present;  the  development  of  the  udder  and 
teats  depends  on  the  number  of  times  the  animals  have  suckled  young. 
In  female  hogs  which  have  been  spayed  scars  of  the  operation  are 
visible  on  the  left  flank. 


Action  in  General  145 

5.     HORSES 

The  sex  of  the  dressed  horses  may  be  determined  by  the  same  char- 
acteristics as  were  described  for  cattle.  In  stallions  the  fat  is  generally 
of  a  lighter  color  and  almost  white,  in  contradistinction  to  the  intensely 
yellow  fat  of  geldings  and  mares. 

6.  Concerning  the  characteristics  of  the  sexes  of  slaughtered  dogs, 
nothing  particular  can  be  said. 

For  the  judgment  of  slaughtered  animals  after  inspection  is  accom- 
plished, the  points  outlined  on  page  158  should  be  considered. 

Regarding  the  stamping  of  meat  after  inspection  is  made,  see 
page  159. 

3.     Inspection  of  Imported  Meat 
(a)     Meat  from  Foreign  Countries 

The  inauguration  of  a  general  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspec- 
tion on  animals  slaughtered  within  the  German  Empire  makes  it  naturally 
essential  to  subject  imported  fresh  and  prepared  meats  to  a  careful  inspec- 
tion and  strict  judgment.  For  this  purpose  exact  directions  were  issued 
in  the  regulations  in  connection  with  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law, 
which  also  include  the  chemical  examination  of  such  meat.  As  the  judg- 
ment of  diseased  imported  meat  sometimes  varies  from  the  disposition  to 
be  taken  of  native  meat,  it  is  advisable  to  consider  carefully  the  above- 
mentioned  regulations  in  every  case  of  condemnation. 

The  fact  that  importations  into  Germany  of  foreign  meat,  of  con- 
taminated meat,  sausages,  and  other  mixtures  in  air-tight  cans  or  similar 
containers,  have  been  prohibited  since  October  I,  1900,  was  mentioned  on 
page  80. 

The  relative  sizes  of  imported  fresh  and  prepared  pieces  of  foreign 
meat  were  temporarily  established  up  to  December  I,  1903,  and  as  there 
have  been  no  new  regulations  made  to  govern  these  relations,  the  last 
established  conditions  of  importations  remain  in  effect  until  further 
amendments  are  issued.  The  shipment  of  foreign  meats  to  Germany  is 
limited  to  certain  places  of  entry,  which  are  named  in  connection  with  the 
inspection  stations  in  the  regulations  of  the  Federal  Council. 

Regarding  the  designation  of  imported  salted  intestines  (casings),  there  are 
5  parts  distinguished  in  the  intestines  of  cattle  according  to  Groning:  "Wreath 
intestines''  (small  intestines),  "cap"  (caecum),  "butt"  (caecum,  with  the  orifice  of 
the  ileum  and  a  small  portion  of  the  colon),  "middle  intestines"  (colon),  and  "fat 
end"  (rectum).  Every  bundle  of  intestines  has,  in  accordance  to  its  origin  from 
the  various  countries,  a  certain  length,  or  it  contains  a  certain  number  of  intestines. 
A  bundle  of  "wreath"  intestines  is  24  to  32 ;  a  bundle  of  "middle"  intestines  is 
generally  18  m.  long.  So-called  nodular  intestines  (Chap.  VII)  [see  B.  A.  I.  Order 
ii 


146        Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

150,  Regulation  13,  section  32]  are  frequently  packed  separately  as  inferior  in 
quality.  These  bundles  are  longer;  and  therefore  a  barrel  packed  with  them  con- 
tains, as  a  rule,  about  180  bundles,  while  of  the  good  quality,  over  200  bundles  are 
contained  in  each  barrel. 

For  distinguishing  salted  horse  intestines  from  cattle  intestines,  Wentzel  points 
out  the  following  characteristics :  The  "middle"  intestines  of  cattle  run  in  a 
straight  line,  while  those  of  the  horse  are  curved  on  account  of  the  wall  to  which  the 
mesentery  is  attached  being  shorter  than  that  of  the  opposite  side.  Furthermore, 
the  outside  surface  of  the  small  intestines  of  the  horse  (that  is,  the  mucous  mem- 
brane turned  out),  cannot  be  thoroughly  and  readily  separated,  as  a  result  of  the 
firmer  consistence  of  the  submucosa  and  the  small  quantity  of  fat  it  contains. 
Usually  on  the  intestines  of  the  horse  larger  shreds  of  the  mucous  membrane 
remain  attached,  which  give  them  a  brown  appearance.  On  the  small  intestines 
of  the  horse  the  place  of  attachment  of  the  mesentery  is  conspicuous,  but  this  can- 
not be  noticed  on  the  middle  portion  of  the  intestines  in  cattle.  In  inflating  the 
small  intestines  of  the  horse  with  air  they  will  arrange  themselves  in  windings,  while 
those  of  cattle  will  run  straight.  If  inflated,  the  walls  of  the  intestines  of  cattle 
show  an  interweaving  with  fat  tissue  in  all  directions,  which  is  absent  in  the  intes- 
tines of  the  horse. 

(b)     Domestic  Meat 

As  a  result  of  uniform  regulation  of  meat-inspection  in  the  entire 
German  Empire,  the  reinspection  of  meat  shipped  from  one  place  to 
another  does  not  appear  any  longer  necessary  as  in  former  times ;  never- 
theless, a  control  of  such  introduced  meat  appears  very  desirable,  espe- 
cially when  the  shipments  are  quite  extensive  to  a  certain  locality.  In 
order  to  make  this  control  effective  it  appears  necessary  that  the  meat 
should  originate  from  regularly  inspected  food  animals,  and  should  comply 
with  all  the  general  requirements  which  are  demanded  of  marketed  meat 
in  the  respective  localities.  Besides,  a  supervision  of  shipped  meat  is  also 
necessary  on  account  of  the  manifold  changes  to  which  it  is  exposed 
(putrefaction,  spoiling,  etc.).  The  need  of  inspection  for  meat  shipped  to 
places  having  public  abattoirs  and  a  strict  veterinary  inspection  appears 
also  essential,  as  otherwise  some  of  the  butchers  would  prefer  to  slaughter 
their  animals  in  neighboring  towns  with  less  rigid  inspection  and  probably 
smaller  expense.  Such  procedure  would  threaten  not  alone  the  manage- 
ment of  the  public  abattoirs,  but  would  also  considerably  diminish  their 
revenues.  It  was,  therefore,  determined  that  the  right  of  the  various 
states  in  Germany  may  be  further  exercised  regarding  the  reinspection  of 
meats  shipped  to  localities  in  which  public  abattoirs  are  maintained  .  and 
through  authorized  regulations,  such  meat  would  be  subject  to  a  compul- 
sory reinspection.  An  exception  was  made  for  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia, 
by  the  law  of  June  28,  1902,  in  connection  with  the  law  of  September  23, 
1904,  whereby  the  authority  of  the  towns,  even  if  they  had  public  abattoirs, 
was  revoked,  so  that  meat  shipped  to  such  localities  and  which  was  offi- 
cially inspected  by  a  veterinarian,  need  not  be  subjected  to  a  compulsory 
reinspection.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  19,  section  1-5.] 


Action  in  General  147 

In  localities  to  which  extensive  shipping  of  meat  takes  place  the 
establishment  of  an  inspection  office  appears  very  essential,  the  equipment 
of  which  should  contain  everything  necessary  for  a  thorough  expert 
inspection  of  the  meat  (arrangement  for  hanging  up  the  meat,  inspection 
tables,  good  light,  microscope,  and  reagents,  stamping  apparatus,  etc.). 
Only  veterinarians  should  be  employed  as  experts  in  such  offices,  and  the 
time  for  inspection  should  be  as  much  as  possible  restricted  to  those  hours 
having  sufficient  daylight,  in  case  there  is  not  a  very  good  artificial  light 
present  (electric  light,  glowing  gas  light,  acetylene  light).  Where  only  an 
inconsiderable  quantity  of  fresh  meat  is  shipped  in,  it  may  be  inspected  on 
the  premises  of  the  consignee,  or  may  be  directly  brought  to  the  inspector, 
who,  however,  should  be  in  all  cases  a  veterinarian.  The  inspection  of 
prepared  meat  (meat  products)  for  which  there  can  be  no  cessation 
recognized  within  the  Empire,  may  be  undertaken  under  the  same  condi- 
tion by  lay  meat  inspectors. 

Regarding  the  procedure  of  the  inspection  of  the  fresh  and  prepared 
meats  shipped  in  from  other  localities,  the  directions  concerning  the  tech- 
nical relations  of  the  veterinary  inspection  of  meat  imported  from  foreign 
countries  may  serve  as  guidance. 

Should  a  chemical  examination  of  such  meat  be  necessary,  the  direc- 
tions for  the  chemical  examination  of  meats  and  fats  give  the  necessary 
fundamental  information. 

An  examination  for  trichina,  where  such  is  maintained,  should  al- 
ways be  undertaken  on  pork  shipped  from  other  localities,  if  the  meat 
originates  from  localities  which  do  not  conduct  regulated  trichina  exami- 
nations ;  or  if  the  pieces  of  pork  or  carcasses  are  not  marked  or  otherwise 
designated  that  the  respective  animals  were  examined  by  an  authorized 
trichina  examiner  and  found  free  of  that  affection.  The  procedure  of 
trichina  examination  may  be  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  directions 
for  the  examination  of  meat  for  trichina  and  measles,  as  given  in  the 
regulations  to  the  meat-inspection  law. 

The  judging  of  imported  foreign  meat  has  to  be  carried  out  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  to  the  meat-inspection  law.  For  native 
meat  such  regulations  are  authorized  which  exist  at  the  place  to  which 
the  meat  is  destined  in  connection  with  the  state  police  instructions  for 
those  places. 

4.     Inspection  for  Trichina 

Trichinosis  in  hogs  and  dogs,  described  in  Chap.  VII,  Sect.  5, 
requires  a  microscopical  examination  of  the  muscles  of  these  animals  for 
the  determination  of  the  presence  of  trichina. 


148         Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc 

The  authorized  regulation  of  this  examination — the  trichina  inspection — is, 
according  to  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law,  left  to  the  state  governments.  It 
has  already  been  made  obligatory  and  inaugurated  in  North  Germany,  through  state 
government  police  regulations;  while  in  states  of  South  Germany  it  is  carried  out 
only  exceptionally,  and  almost  exclusively  in  some  of  the  larger  cities. 

[Formerly  in  the  United  States  trichina  inspection  was  maintained 
only  for  export  pork.  This,  however,  has  also  been  abandoned,  as  it  was 
found  that  some  of  the  foreign  governments  were  not  giving  any  atten- 
tion to  our  certificates.  Quite  adequate  reasons  for  not  maintaining  a 
trichina  examination  in  the  United  States  are  described  by  Dr.  A.  D. 
Melvin  in  his  work  on  the  "Federal  Meat  Inspection  Service"  (B.  A.  I. 
Circular  125,  page  35),  which  is  quoted  in  the  following: 

"While  the  Federal  meat  inspection  in  this  country  is  as  thorough  as  a  com- 
prehensive law,  stringent  regulations,  and  a  liberal  appropriation  of  money  can 
make  it,  and  the  consumer  of  meats  bearing  the  stamp  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed" 
may  in  general  have  the  comfortable  assurance  that  he  is  buying  and  eating  products 
from  healthy  animals  prepared  under  clean  and  sanitary  conditions,  and  the 
danger  of  contracting  disease  from  eating  these  meats  is  practically  eliminated,  yet 
the  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  that  there  is  one  disease  against  which  the  meat 
inspection  legend  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  safeguard.  For  the  detection  of  most 
of  the  diseases  affecting  meat  the  human  eye  needs  no  assistance.  The  disease  called 
trichinosis,  however,  to  which  hogs  are  subject,  is  caused  by  a  parasite  so  small  that 
the  microscope  must  be  employed  to  detect  it.  Thorough  curing  or  thorough  cook- 
ing of  the  meat  kills  this  parasite.  It  seems,  however,  that  some  European  peoples 
have  a  habit  of  eating  raw  or  half-raw  pork,  and  consequently  they  have  suffered 
from  this  disease.  Very  elaborate  measures  have  been  taken  in  some  countries  to 
do  away  with  or  to  lessen  the  danger.  In  Germany,  for  instance,  there  is  an  army 
of  inspectors  who  use  the  microscope  to  detect  these  parasites  in  pork.  These  coun 
tries  some  years  ago  forbade  the  importation  of  American  pork  products  unless  they 
had  been  microscopically  inspected.  To  meet  this  requirement  the  Bureau  instituted 
several  years  ago  a  system  of  microscopic  inspection  of  pork  intended  for  shipment  to 
such  countries.  No  microscopic  inspection  of  pork  intended  for  home  consumption, 
however,  has  ever  been  made  or  even  contemplated.  The  Department  takes  the 
ground  that  from  the  nature  of  the  disease  an  examination  of  certain  parts  of  a  hog 
carcass  can  only  minimize  and  not  eliminate  the  danger. 

The  parasites,  it  is  true,  are  usually  found,  if  found  at  all,  in  certain  parts,  as  the 
pillar  of  the  diaphragm,  the  psoas  muscle,  the  inner  aspect  of  the  shoulder,  or  the 
base  of  the  tongue.  Not  finding  them  in  these  parts  by  the  usual  methods,  it  may  be 
assumed  to  be  probable  that  they  do  not  exist  in  the  remainder  of  the  carcass.  This 
is,  however,  only  a  probability,  as  they  may  exist,  and  even  to  such  an  extent  as 
to  produce  disease  if  the  flesh  is  eaten  raw.  Many  cases  are  on  record  where 
twenty,  even  thirty,  examinations  were  made  before  trichinae  were  found ;  and  out  of 
6,329  cases  of  trichinosis  in  Germany,  between  1881  and  1898,  a  careful  inquiry 
traced  2,042  cases  (over  32  per  cent)  to  meat  which  had  been  microscopically  exam- 
ined and  passed  as  free  from  trichinae.  In  view  of  these  facts  the  Department  has 
regarded  it  as  utterly  impracticable  to  inspect  hog  carcasses  for  this  disease.  It  has 
further  taken  the  view  that  such  inspection — which  as  formerly  carried  on  for 
exported  products  would  cost  about  $3,700,000  a  year  if  all  hogs  killed  at  inspected 


Action  in  General 


149 


houses  were  so  examined — would  do  more  harm  than  good.  It  would  create  in  the 
minds  of  the  consumers  a  feeling  of  false  security,  which  might  lead  them  to  omit 
the  only  sure  means  of  escaping  danger,  namely,  to  refrain  from  eating  uncooked  or 
uncured  pork;  and  it  would  thus  defeat  its  very  purpose  and  render  the  great 
trouble  and  expense  worse  than  useless."] 

Trichina  Inspection  Association. — To  facilitate  the  meat  traffic  between  the 
governments  of  Prussia  (with  the  exception  of  the  Hohenzollern  country),  an  agree- 
ment was  accepted  that  all  meat  from  hogs  which  originate  inside  of  the  territories 


Fig.  57.  Compressor,  the  upper  plate  of  which  may  be  drawn  out.     Hauptner-Berlin 


of  the  participating  states,  and  which  is  shipped  from  one  of  these  states,  is  con- 
sidered as  inspected  for  trichinae,  as  the  requirements  for  inspection  is  in  all  of 
these  states  based  on  practically  the  same  foundation. 

The    execution    of   trichina    inspection    on    fresh    or   prepared    meats,    may    be 
assigned  to  special  trichina  examiners,  and  should  be  carried  out  in  accordance  with 
the  above-mentioned  directions  of  the  law.     Out- 
side the  public  abattoirs  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
meat  and  trichina  inspection  in  hogs    performed 
by  one  and  the   same  person    in  order  that  one 
or    the    other   inspection    should   not   be   omitted. 


Fig.  58.   American  compressor 
(closed) 


Fig.  59.     American  compressor 
(opened) 


Regarding  the  details  to  be  considered  in  the  inspection,  it  may  be  referred  to  the 
authorized  directions  as  well  as  to  the  numerous  special  publications  on  trichina 
inspection.1 


1  For  instance:     Johne — The  Trichina  Examiner,  gth  edition,  Berlin,  1904;  Long- 
Preusse — Practical  Guide  for  the  Trichina  Inspection,  6th  edition,  Berlin,  1905,  and 


others. 


150  Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

Of  the  now  generally  adopted  compressors  which  are  used  at  present  in  pre- 
paring squeeze  preparations,  Fig.  57  represents  an  illustration  of  a  compressor  divi- 
ded into  24  parts  and  which  is  now  generally  used ;  while  Figs.  58  and  59  represent 
a  very  practical  American  compressor  which  does  not  possess  a  division  into  fields, 
and  which  is  represented  in  an  open  and  closed  condition. 

For  an  easy  performance  of  the  microscopical  examination  of  prepared  squeeze 
preparations  for  trichinae,  there  are  numerous  so-called  trichina-microscopes  con- 
structed. Projection  apparatuses  are  also  employed  in  larger  abattoirs  as  well  as 
inspection  bureaus  under  the  designation  of  trichina  scopes,  which  serve  for  a  quick 
purely  mechanical  search  of  the  preparations.  Regarding  the  importance  and  execu- 
tion of  these  projection  trichina  inspections,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  publi- 
cations of  Kohler,  Bockelmann,  Schiiller,  in  the  "Zeitschrift  fur  Fleisch-und  Milch 
hygiene." 

That  the  taking  of  samples  of  meat  required  for  the  examination  of  trichinae 
should  be  undertaken  by  special  sample  takers  is  apparent  from  the  official  directions. 
These  sample  takers,  who  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  the  larger  abattoirs,  must 
possess  the  same  qualifications  as  the  trichina  examiners.  The  latter,  but  especially 
the  sample  takers,  should  be  required  to  perform  the  examination  of  these  samples 
for  measles. 

The  judging  of  the  results  of  the  examination  for  trichinae  and  measles  should 
not  be  trusted  to  the  trichina  examiners,  but  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  reexamined 
by  veterinary  inspectors.  Regarding  the  disposition  of  meat  found  to  be  infested 
with  trichinae  or  measles,  see  the  regulations  to  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law, 
as  well  as  Chap.  VII,  section  5.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  17, 
page  i.] 

The  samples  of  muscles  which  are  cut  out  for  the  preparations  of  the  slides 
cannot  be  considered  as  unobjectionable  food  after  they  have  been  so  used,  and  they 
should  therefore  be  treated  as  meat  of  inferior  quality,  which,  at  larger  places,  is  best 
utilized  in  the  Freibanks. 

5.     Legal  Means  of  Redress  and  Complaints  in  the  Execution  of  Meat  Inspection 

Against  the  decisions  of  the  inspector  and  the  police  authorities  in 
matters  pertaining  to  food  animal  and  meat  inspection,  the  owners  must 
be  granted  an  appeal  to  higher  authority.  Accordingly  in  the  regulations 
to  the  meat-inspection  law  it  is  precisely  determined  regarding  the  com- 
plaints to  be  made  and  the  legal  means  of  redress  by  the  state  govern- 
ments, which  should  issue  measures  that  in  cases  of  appeals  from  the 
condemnation  of  an  inspector  wno  was  not  educated  as  a  veterinarian,  the 
opinion  of  a  graduated  veterinarian  must  be  required,  and  in  case  of  con- 
demnations by  a  veterinarian  at  least  the  opinion  of  one  suitable  expert 
must  be  taken  into  consideration.  As  such  experts  may  be  considered  in 
a  country  or  in  abattoirs  which  have  only  one  veterinarian,  the  official 
veterinarians  (district,  country,  chief  bureau  veterinarians),  while  in  the 
larger  abattoirs  a  chief  veterinarian  or  the  director  of  the  abattoir  consti- 
tutes the  expert.  This  should  constitute  the  last  instance  for  appeal,  as 
the  appealing  to  a  still  higher  authority  would  not  correspond  to  the  value 
of  the  object,  which  is  also  subject  to  spoiling,  and  besides  the  lesions 
are  readily  obliterated.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  28, 
section  I.] 


Action  in  General  151 

The  time  limit  for  the  institution  of  a  complaint  should  not  extend 
over  two  hours  after  the  decision  of  the  respective  opinion  was  tendered, 
owing  to  the  above-mentioned  reasons. 

The  cost  incurred  by  the  procedure  made  necessary  by  the  complaint 
should  be  borne  by  the  owner  if  the  opinion  of  the  first  inspector  is  con- 
firmed, while  if  it  is  reversed  the  cost  must  be  paid  by  the  treasury  of  the 
respective  community.  Only  by  such  a  procedure  and  by  appropriately 
high  expenses  can  constant  appealing  be  prevented. 

6.     Bookkeeping  and  Certifications  of  Findings 

The  necessary  bookkeeping  required  in  connection  with  meat  inspec- 
tion is  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  extent  of  the  inspection  and  the 
nature  of  other  local  conditions. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  required  to  keep  a  diary-inspection  book  for  the 
ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection. 

By  the  resolutions  of  the  Federal  Council  of  May  28,  1903,  and  May  5,  1904, 
authority  was  granted  to  the  state  governments  to  adopt  a  simplification  of  the 
daily  bookkeeping  in  the  public  abattoirs  to  such  an  extent  that  animals  passed  on 
inspection  may  be  entered  in  a  summary ;  also  that  the  entering  of  the  time  of  regis- 
tration, the  time  of  the  ante-mortem  and  post-morten  inspection  may  be  omitted, 
as  well  as  the  condemnation  of  single  parts,  when  they  result  from  the  same  cause. 
The  respective  animals  may  be  daily  entered  combined,  but  must  be  kept  separated 
according  to  species.  In  other  cases  the  designation  of  further  distinguishing  signs 
with  the  kind  and  sex  of  the  animals  in  column  2  of  the  diary  may  be  omitted. 
[See  B  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  27,  sections  1-2.] 

At  the  inspection  stations  for  foreign  meats  the  bookkeeping  of  meat 
inspection  must  be  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  regulations. 

If  requested  the  inspector  must  make  out  a  special  certificate  (certi- 
fication of  the  findings)  on  the  results  of  the  inspection  of  an  animal,  for 
which  certain  forms  are  adopted.  Regarding  the  issuance  of  such  certi- 
ficates of  inspected  foreign  meats,  the  imperial  regulations  have  no 
specifications. 

7,     Statistics  of  Ante-mortem  and  Post-mortem  Inspection 

In  order  to  utilize  the  results  of  the  inspection,  the  Federal  Council 
passed  resolutions  on  June  I,  1904,  which  requires  a  report  from  the 
inspectors  on  the  statistical  compilation.  According  to  this  the  inspec- 
tors are  directed  to  prepare  for  every  quarter  of  the  calendar  year  authen- 
tic information  (slaughter  statistics)  of  the  inspected  animals,  which 
should  be  prepared  on  a  specially  printed  form,  and  which  is  to  be  trans- 
mitted until  an  established  date  to  the  places  determined  by  the  state  gov- 
ernments. Besides  there  are  also  to  be  submitted  annual  statistical  com- 


152         Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

pilations  on  the  results  of  the  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection 
on  specially  prepared  forms,  whereby  the  veterinary  and  nonveterinary 
inspectors  have  to  use  different  forms,  which  are  adapted  to  the  differing 
duties  of  these  experts.  The  inspection  stations  for  foreign  meat  have 
also  to  report  annually  the  results  of  the  inspection,  and  there  also  have  to 
be  prepared  until  further  orders  in  the  abattoirs  the  findings  of  tuberculo- 
sis in  the  slaughtered  animals,  compiled  in  an  annual  statistical  report. 

Regarding  the  details  to  be  considered  by  the  inspectors  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  statistics,  it  must  be  referred  to  the  special  regulations  of 
the  various  state  governments. 

The  slaughter  statistics  were  prepared  for  the  first  time  for  the 
3d  quarter  of  1904,  and  the  results  of  the  annual  inspection  were  reported 
for  the  first  time  for  the  year  1904.  The  compiling  of  the  entire  statistical 
material  is  carried  out  by  the  Imperial  Health  Department,  which  also 
publishes  it. 

8.     Dues   for  the  Ante-mortem  and   Postmortem  Inspection 

For  the  practice  of  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection  the 
experts  are  allowed  a  compensation,  which  is  designated  as  "slaughter 
dues."  The  amount  is  regulated  for  the  inspection  of  foreign  meats  by 
the  Federal  Council ;  for  all  other  inspections  it  is  left  to  the  state  govern- 
ments. The  amount  of  the  dues  should  be  such,  that  while  it  should  not 
be  an  unreasonable  burden  for  the  slaughterer,  yet  it  ought  to  assure  the 
expert  an  adequate  pay. 

An  underbidding  of  the  authoritatively  adjusted  fees  by  the  experts 
should  be  condemned  and  should  be  severely  punished. 

The  collection  of  the  inspection  dues  in  abattoirs  and  in  places  which 
have  special  inspection  offices  (page  156)  established  for  ambulatory 
inspection,  is  made  through  the  respective  treasuries,  or  also  through  the 
local  police  authorities ;  otherwise  the  fees  are,  as  a  rule,  directly  paid  to 
the  inspector.  The  latter  should  be  restricted  as  much  as  possible  by  the 
police  in  consideration  of  the  authority  of  the  inspector  as  an  expert,  and 
by  not  having  to  accept  his  dues  directly  from  the  owner  it  would  make 
the  inspector  more  or  less  independent  of  the  public.  Therefore,  it  is  best 
for  the  police  authorities,  as  well  as  for  the  inspectors,  if  the  latter  are 
appointed  with  a  fixed  salary  and  the  dues  for  the  inspection  are  collected 
by  the  authorities.  This  must  also  be  followed  when  the  payment  of  the 
inspection  dues  to  the  inspector  is  not  made. 

The  dues  are  also  to  be  payable  in  cases  where  the  inspector  was 
called,  but  was  unable  to  perform  the  duties  through  no  neglect  of  his. 

9.     Supervision  of  the  Ante-mortem  and  Post-mortem  Inspection 
That  the   entire  system   of  meat   inspection  must  be   placed   under 
supervision,  and  under  a  supreme  direction  of  a  central  office,  does  not 
require  any  further  reasoning.    According  to  the  regulations  the  state  gov- 


Action  in  General  153 

ernments  are  directed  to  issue  suitable  regulations  to  such  an  extent  that 
a  revision  should  be  made  of  every  inspection  district  at  least  every  two 
years.  In  most  instances  it  is  best  to  assign  this  work  to  official  veterina- 
rians, while  the  central  direction  of  the  office  should  rest  in  the  hands  of 
higher  state  veterinarians  (state  department,  district  veterinarians). 

10.     Freibank 

By  the  term  Freibank  is  understood  a  place  (shop)  for  the  selling  of 
meat  of  inferior  quality,  not  first-class,  marketable  meat  (page  162).  The 
term  "bank,"  in  its  present  application,  originates  from  the  old  designation 
of  the  meat-selling  places  as  "meat  banks."  At  the  places  so  designated, 
only  such  meat  was  sold  which  possessed  all  the  requirements,  and,  there- 
fore, it  was  accepted  as  "marketable"  (suitable  for  market  shop  clean, 
meat  of  full  value).  All  other  meat,  which  was  yet  salable,  was  designated 
as  not  marketable  (not  suitable  for  market,  not  shop  clean,  inferior  qual- 
ity, deficient),  and  its  sale  was  restricted  to  a  special  bank  (Freibank), 
located  apart  from  the  other  meat  shops.  At  present  the  Freibank  is  an 
indispensable  establishment  for  the  meat  inspection,  the  necessity  for 
which  need  not  be  further  discussed  here.  The  legal  permission  of  the 
Freibanks  was  established  by  the  food  law  of  May  14,  1879,  and  in  the 
regulations  based  on  the  same,  in  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  of  June 
3,  1900,  and  also  the  adopted  state  legislative  as  well  as  the  local  statutory 
directions. 

The  principle  of  the  modern  Freibank  and  of  other  similar  establish- 
ments is  the  selling  under  declaration — namely,  by  stating  the  cause  which 
makes  the  meat  otherwise  unmarketable.  As  a  consequence  of  the  "non- 
marketable"  condition  of  the  meat  the  price  of  the  meat  is,  as  a  rule,  lower 
than  that  of  marketable  meat.  This  is.  however,  not  absolutely  necessary, 
and  depends  on  the  local  conditions  of  the  meat  trade.  The  adjusting  of 
the  price  of  the  meat  ought  to  be  left  to  the  owners,  as  an  official  fixing  of 
the  price  is  not  permissible  legally.  In  case  the  compulsory  declaration 
cannot  be  sufficiently  carried  out,  meat  which  is  "non-marketable"  must 
be  excluded  for  further  trade  purposes.  Therefore  the  purchase  of  such 
non-marketable  meat  and  its  utilization  by  butchers,  manufacturers  of  meat 
products,  hotel  and  restaurant  and  boarding-house  keepers,  are  inadmissi- 
ble and  punishable.  In  connection  with  this  are  carried  out  the  customary 
limitation  of  the  sale  of  meat  to  small  quantities  in  the  Freibanks.  and  the 
official  supervision  of  the  entire  Freibank  management,  which  is  accom- 
plished in  the  simplest  way  and  most  successfully  in  places,  where  only 
authoritatively  appointed,  sufficiently  compensated,  and  otherwise  inde- 
pendent persons  are  employed.  A  supervision  of  the  Freibanks.  if  pos- 
sible, by  veterinarians,  or  at  least  by  non-veterinary  inspectors,  is  neces- 
sary under  all  conditions. 


154          Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

The  operation  of  the  Freibanks  may  be  advantageously  united  with  the  equip- 
ments for  safe  keeping,  for  boiling  and  pickling,  as  well  as  for  the  rendering  of  fat. 
The  location  of  Freibanks  in  places  which  have  abattoirs  is  best  established  on  the 
premises,  as  by  such  arrangements  their  operation  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest. 
For  large  cities  with  abattoirs  one  Freibank  only  would  not  prove  sufficient,  but  it 
would  be  necessary  to  establish  inside  the  city  limit  one  or  more  additional  Frei- 
banks. Furthermore,  and  this  applies  also  to  localities  without  abattoirs,  such 
places  should  be  selected  which  are  inhabited  principally  by  the  laboring  class,  and 
also  not  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  regular  butcher  shop. 

Recently  it  was  recommended  to  establish  ambulatory  Freibanks  also,  and 
special  wagons  were  constructed  for  this  purpose. 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  Freibank  the  authorities  may  levy  appropriate 
dues,  and  the  expenses  may  also  be  covered  by  the  receipts  from  the  sales. 

Similar  to  a  Freibank  is  to  be  considered  the  sale  of  meat  under  police  super- 
vision which  may  occur  at  any  place  where  the  meat  was  declared  inferior  in 
quality.  This  disposition  of  the  non-marketable  meat  proves  very  suitable,  especially 
for  smaller  towns  which  cannot  afford  to  maintain  a  permanenlly  equipped 
Freibank. 

Under  certain  conditions  such  meat  may  be  immediately  disposed  of  on  the 
premises  of  the  butcher.  For  readily  conceivable  reasons  it  is  natural  that  super- 
vision by  the  authorities  must  be  especially  strict,  otherwise  all  other  requirements 
which  constitute  the  principles  of  the  sales  on  the  Freibank  must  be  carried  out. 

[The  establishment  of  the  Freibanks  in  various  countries  of  Europe 
has  proven  a  great  success.  The  strict  official  supervision  of  them  assures 
the  poor  classes  a  wholesome,  palatable,  and  yet  inexpensive  meat.  Such 
meat  thus  advantageously  utilized  in  the  Freibanks  would  otherwise  have 
to  be  condemned  and  only  its  value  in  by-products  would  come  into  con- 
sideration, hence  the  economic  importance  of  this  system  can  be  readily 
recognized. 

The  establishment  of  the  Freibank  in  the  United  States,  making  a 
three-class  meat  system,  would  afford  the  same  advantages  that  obtain  in 
the  countries  where  it  is  now  in  operation.  The  system  would  not  create 
any  prejudice  amongst  that  class  of  people  who  would  patronize  it,  as 
there  are  at  the  present  time  a  large  number  of  families  in  this  country 
who  have  emigrated  from  the  countries  where  the  Freibank  system  has 
been  in  existence  for  many  years,  and  therefore  they  are  thoroughly  famil- 
iar with  this  institution,  and  would  gladly  take  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunities afforded  thereby. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  Frei- 
bank, there  is  one  which  would  have  a  far-reaching  effect  toward  the 
eradication  of  tuberculosis.  By  the  establishment  of  the  Freibank  a  large 
percentage  of  carcasses  which  are  under  the  present  system  of  meat 
inspection  condemned  for  tuberculosis  would  be  passed  for  the  Freibank,3 


1  For  detailed  information  on  this  subject  the.  reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  Ch. 
W.  Stiles'  work  on  "The  Three-Class  (Freibank)  Meat  System  as  an  Aid  in 
Eradicating  Tuberculosis."  Jour,  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  Nov.  2, 
1907,  p.  1483. 


Performance  of  Ante-mortem  and  Post-mortem  Inspection,  etc.     155 

which  would  greatly  diminish  the  losses  to  the  stock-raiser,  shipper,  and 
packer,  and  hence  the  existing  feeling  of  the  stock-owners  toward  the 
application  of  the  tuberculin  test  to  their  herds  would  be  beneficially  influ- 
enced in  that  a  greater  compensation  would  be  obtained  for  their  tubercu- 
lous cattle.] 

B,     Performance    of    the   Ante^mortem   and   Postxmortem    Inspection    in 
the  Stock  Yards  and  Abattoirs 

Although  the  purpose  of  the  public  abattoirs  and  stock  yards  (Chap. 
XII)  is  primarily  to  centralize  at  one  point  all  the  slaughtering  of  a  com- 
munity, they  are  of  greater  importance  in  the  performance  of  meat  inspec- 
tion because  of  the  inauguration  of  compulsory  slaughter  therein.  In  the 
public  stock  yards  and  abattoirs  the  inspection  of  animals,  both  alive  and 
after  slaughter,  is  not  restricted  to  the  animals  brought  there,  but  the 
meat  which  is  shipped  from  outside  into  such  a  community  is  also 
inspected.  In  very  large  cities,  however,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
establish  special  inspection  stations  inside  of  the  city  for  the  inspection  of 
meat  or  carcasses  which  are  brought  or  shipped  into  the  city.  In  the  abat- 
toirs the  meat-inspection  authorities  are  in  charge  of  the  further  disposi- 
tion of  the  condemned  meat  (page  170),  the  sale  of  inferior  or  impaired 
meat,  etc. 

In  the  extensive  and  varied  inspection  service  in  stock  yards  and 
abattoirs  it  is  natural  that  this  work  can  be  only  carried  out  in  a  complete 
manner  by  veterinarians.  And  as  they  may,  at  the  same  time,  manage  the 
establishment,  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  food-animal  insurance,  etc.,  a 
requirement  to  have  only  veterinarians  assigned  to  the  management  of 
public  abattoirs  would  not  be  unjust.  Besides  the  veterinary  director  it 
requires  also  the  services  of  special  veterinarians  to  carry  out  the  inspec- 
tion in  larger  abattoirs,  which  fact  does  not  need  to  be  further  discussed. 
The  performance  of  certain  work  in  connection  with  meat  inspection  may 
be  assigned  in  stock  yards  and  abattoirs  to  non-veterinary  inspectors  or  to 
other  appointed  experts  (trichina  examiners),  under  veterinary  supervi- 
sion and  responsibility :  howrever,  this  should  be  followed  only  when  it  is 
absolutely  necessary.  The  employment  of  lay  inspectors  exclusively  for 
meat-inspection  work  in  stock  yards  and  abattoirs  cannot  be  approved. 
\Yhen  lay  inspectors  are  substituted  for  veterinary  experts  the  arrange- 
ment should  be  such  that  the  inspection  should  be  regularly  performed 
during  the  prescribed  hours.  The  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspec- 
tion in  stock  yards  and  abattoirs,  finally  necessitates  a  personnel  for  the 
supervision  of  the  order  and  the  operation  of  the  abattoirs,  as  well  as 
skilled  and  conscientious  assistants  for  the  discharge  of  incidental  labor 
and  duties  in  connection  with  the  meat-inspection  service. 


156         Chap.  V.     Organization  and  Methods  of  Procedure,  etc. 

In  large  abattoirs  the  time  for  inspection  extends,  as  a  rule,  to  all 
hours  of  the  day,  and  in  several  places  it  is  even  continued  during  the 
night.  In  small  and  medium-sized  abattoirs  \t  is  reasonable  to  limit  the 
service  of  inspection  to  certain  hours,  adapted  to  local  necessities. 

C     The  Ambulatory  Anteinortem  and  Post/mortem  Inspection 

In  all  places  which  do  not  possess  stock  yards  and  abattoirs,  meat 
inspection  must  be  performed  on  the  premises  of  the  slaughtering  party, 
which  naturally  is  far  more  troublesome,  more  difficult,  and  not  as  thor- 
ough as  the  inspection  in  public  abattoirs.  Where  the  size  of  the  place 
and  other  conditions  permit,  the  inspection  should  be  preferably  per- 
formed by  veterinarians,  and  only  in  case  they  cannot  be  obtained  should 
non-veterinary  inspectors  be  called  upon  to  perform  the  inspection.  The 
latter  will  probably  never  be  dispensed  with  in  small  towns  and  in  locali- 
ties which  are  thinly  populated.  In  ambulatory  meat  inspection  it  is 
always  necessary  to  form  inspection  districts,  which  assure  the  appointed 
meat  inspectors  suitable  and  exclusive  spheres  of  activity.  In  those  local- 
ities in  which  the  inspection  cannot  be  performed  by  an  individual  expert, 
inspection  stations  are  frequently  established  in  which  the  inspections  to 
be  made  are  reported,  and  the  dues  paid.  Here  is  also  inspected  the  meat 
brought  or  shipped  into  that  locality,  and  all  matters  affecting  food  ani- 
mals and  meat  inspection  are  regulated  therein. 

Regarding  the  time  of  inspection,  the  distance  to  be  covered  by  the 
inspector  should  always  be  considered  and  sufficient  notice  should  be  given 
in  order  that  the  inspector  may  regulate  his  activity  accordingly.  If,  as 
in  hogs,  the  post-mortem  inspection  and  examination  for  trichinae  are  not 
carried  out  by  one  and  the  same  inspector,  care  should  be  taken  that 
neither  of  the  inspections  should  remain  unperformed. 

D,     Extraordinary  Meat  Inspection 

By  this  term  is  understood  special  examinations  which  the  experts  of 
meat  inspection  have  to  carry  out  either  alone  or  accompanied  by  the 
police  authorities,  not  only  of  slaughtering  places,  but  also  the  premises 
for  storing,  preparing,  and  marketing  meat.  Although  veterinary  inspec- 
tors should  always  pay  attention  to  the  conditions  and  circumstances  of 
the  industrial  premises  which  they  may  enter  in  the  execution  of  their 
office,  yet  unexpected  special  examinations  must  not  be  dispensed  with. 
In  order  that  any  possible  objections  to  these  examinations  could  be  met, 
it  is  advisable  that  extraordinary  meat  inspection  should  be  considered  in 
the  local  statutory  regulations  in  connection  with  the  general  meat 
inspection.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  6,  section  21.]) 


Extraordinary  Meat   Inspection  157 

This  form  of  inspection  should  be  extended  to : 

1.  Proper  condition  and  equipment  of  all  the  rooms  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  operation  of  the  butcher  shop,  sausage  making  or  prepara- 
tions of  meat  products; 

2.  Cleanliness  of  the  plants ; 

3.  The  presence  of  uninspected  meat,  or 

4.  Tainted  meat ; 

5.  The  use  of  prohibited  preservatives  and  conserving  substances; 

6.  Consideration  of  contingent,  special  regulations    for    the    meat 
brought  in ; 

7.  Proper  condition  of  the  books  pertaining  to  slaughter,  and  the 
meat. 

Not  too  long  an  interval  should  elapse  between  the  examinations,  and 
they  should  be  undertaken  very  frequently  during  the  warmer  season. 

Such  examinations  may  also  extend  to  the  stores  which  market  game, 
fowl,  fish,  or  products  prepared  from  them,  even  if  these  food  substances 
in  themselves  are  not  subject  to  a  compulsory  inspection. 

According  to  an  order  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Ministry  of  the  Interior  of 
November  21,  1906,  the  district  veterinarians  are  directed  to  spend  annually  five 
business  days  in  the  controlling  of  the  butcheries,  sausage  manufactories,  meat 
stores  and  similar  establishments. 

This  control  has  to  be  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  measures  of  the 
prevailing  regulations.  At  the  same  time  it  is  especially  essential  to  advise  the 
proprietors  of  the  establishments  regarding  suitable  equipment  and  caretaking  of 
the  work  and  sales  rooms,  and  concerning  their  proper  management. 

In  Prussia  similar  regulations  exist  only  in  several  of  the  government  districts. 

For  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  there  exists  an  order  that  the  inspectors  must 
report  to  the  police  authorities  all  offenses  or  irregularities  which  they  may  observe 
in  slaughtering  or  meat-storing  establishments,  etc. 


VL  Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors  and 
Disposition  of  the  Condemned  Meat 

All  decisions  of  the  veterinary  inspectors  are  based  not  only  upon  the 
imperial  meat-inspection  law  and  regulations  issued  in  connection  there- 
with, but  also  on  the  state  and  local  police  orders  which  may  be  authorita- 
tively passed.  As  the  authority  for  such  decisions  as  the  non-veterinary 
inspectors  may  make  is  subject  to  veterinary  supervision,  the  following 
representations  apply  only  to  the  veterinary  inspection  force : 

1.     Ante^mortem  Inspections 

The  decision  of  the  inspector  may  determine  the  following : 

(a)  Prohibition  of  slaughter  when  the  animals  show  the  presence 
of  anthrax,  blackleg,  rinderpest,  rabies,  glanders,  hemorrhagic  septicemia, 
or  if  there  is  a  suspicion  of  any  of  these  enumerated  infections. 

(b)  Deferring  the  slaughter  of  the  animals  which  are  exhausted  or 
overheated  through  transportation,  and  of  those  calves  which  are  appar- 
ently immature.     While  there  are  no  legislative  measures  in  the  regula- 
tions for  these,  such  an  order  is  justified  from  the  technical  standpoints : 
besides  it  is  also  in  the  interest  of  the  owners  of  the  animals. 

(c)  Authorization  of  slaughter  in  all  other  cases. 

2,     Inspection  of  the  Slaughtered  Animals 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  inspection  of  the  slaughtered  animal  the 
decision  of  the  inspector  may  be  as  follows : 

(a)  The  meat,  including  the  entire  carcass  (meat  with  bones,  fat, 
viscera,  and  all  other  parts  which  may  be  utilized  for  human  food,  the 
skin  as  well  as  the  blood),  is  passed  for  consumption  (marketable). 

(b)  The  meat  is  passed  for  consumption    (marketable)   after  the 
removal  and  condemnation  of  certain  affected  parts. 

Under  this  decision  is  also  classified  the  meat  of  the  so-called  "one 
measled  cattle/'  which  after  storage  for  21  days  in  cooling  or  refrigera- 
tion room  may  be  passed  for  consumption  without  restrictions. 

(c)  The  meat  is  passed  for  consumption,  but  is  considerably  dimin- 
ished in  its  nutritive  value  (non-marketable,  inferior  quality),  whereby,  as 
a  rule,  several  diseased  viscera  or  more  extensive  parts  of  the  carcass  are 
lemoved  and  condemned. 

158 


Marking  of  Meat 


159 


(d)  The  fat  is  passed  without  restrictions,  while  the  meat  is  either 
condemned,  conditionally  passed,  or  passed  without  restriction. 

In  this  group  should  also  be  classified  the  unaffected  viscera  of  measly 
animals,  the  meat  of  which  should  be  either  condemned,  conditionally 
passed,  of  inferior  quality,  or  passed  without  any  restrictions. 

(e)  Individual  quarters  are  conditionally  passed   (non-marketable, 
with  subjection  to  special  treatment),  or  condemned  while  the  other  parts 
are  passed  (marketable)  or  sold  as  of  inferior  quality  after  the  removal  of 
certain  altered  organs  and  parts. 

(f)  The    entire    carcass    is   conditionally    passed    (non-marketable, 
with  subjection  to  a  special  treatment),  with  the  exception  of  the  parts 
which  might  have  to  be  condemned. 

(g)  The  fat  of  the  animal  is  conditionally  passed  (non-marketable, 
with  subjection  to  a  special  treatment),  and  the  other  meat  including  the 
viscera,  is  condemned. 

(h)  The  entire  carcass 
is  condemned  for  human 
consumption. 

[While  in  Germany,  as 
the  result  of  the  post-mor- 
tem examination,  any  one 
of  the  above-described  ac- 
tions may  be  taken  with  the 
carcass,  in  the  United 
States  only  two  methods  of 
procedure  are  followed. 
The  carcasses  are  either 
passed  for  consumption  or 
they  are  condemned  for  the 
offal  tank.  Those  of  the 
first  group  are  either 

passed  in  their  entirety  or  they  are  passed  only  for  the  preparation  of  lard, 
in  which  case  the  meat  cannot  be  utilized  in  any  form.  For  instance,  in 
slight  lesions  of  tuberculosis,  governed  by  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation 
13,  section  13,  rule  D,  or  mild  cases  of  hog  cholera  and  swine  plague, 
Regulation  13,  section  10,  paragraph  3,  or  in  localized  affections,  such  as 
bruised  parts,  fractures,  limited  lesions  in  one  of  the  viscera,  etc.,  only  the 
affected  parts  are  condemned,  while  the  carcass  may  be  passed  for  lard.] 

A,    Marking  of  Meat 

The  inspected  meat  should  be  stamped  without  delay.  [See  B.  A.  I. 
Order  150,  Regulation  17,  section  5.]  For  this  marking  the  ink  stamps, 
\vhich  mav  be  cut  out  of  metal  and  variously  constructed,  seem  to 


Fig.  60.  Jar  stamp 


Fig.  61.  Box  stamp 


160          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

serve  best.  Rubber  stamps  cannot  be  recommended  on  account  of  their 
lesser  durability.  For  convenient  transportation,  the  box  stamp  illustrated 
in  Fig.  6 1  is  very  well  adapted,  while  for  the  great  amount  of  stamping 
in  abattoirs  and  inspection  offices  a  box  stamp  similar  to  that  of  Fig.  60 
may  be  advantageously  employed. 

For  ambulatory  meat  inspection  may  be  recommended  the  Garth- 
Muto  stamp,  illustrated  in  Fig.  62,  which  contains  all  the  necessary  forms 
of  stamps  conveniently  in  a  case.  The  stamp  consists  of  a  steel  handle 


Fig.  62.  Garth-Muto  stamping  outfit  (Hauptner-Berlin) 

containing  a  spring,  a  sliding  ring,  and  five  separate  steel  frames,  which 
can  be  easily  connected  or  detached  from  the  handle  by  slight  pressure 
and  sliding  the  ring  on  the  shank  of  the  handle.  The  case  contains  besides 
the  stamps  a  small  bottle  of  stamping  ink.  a  pad,  and  forceps.  Other  kinds 
of  stamp  constructions  were  devised  by  Garth,  Liebe,  Kiihnau,  Hollander, 
Groning,  and  others. 


Marking  of  Meat 


161 


As  stamping  ink  for  marking  of  meat  of  native  slaughtered  animals 
there  has  been  prescribed  a  blue  ink  which  must  be  harmless,  stable,  must 
stick  easily,  and  dry  quickly.  It  should  also  penetrate  into  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  meat,  and  the  impressions  should  not  disappear  after  pickling 
or  smoking. 

Branding  irons  of  suitable  construction  are  used  for  marking  and 
may  be  heated  in  charcoal  fire,  gas  flames  (bunsen  burner),  alcohol  or  ben- 
zin  apparatuses.  The  construction  of  a  benzin  brading  stamp,  which  the 
author  had  constructed  from  a  benzin  soldering  iron,  is  illustrated  and 
described  under  Fig.  63.  This  simple  and  cheap  stamping  apparatus  can 


Fig.  63.  Benzin  branding  stamp,  a,  benzin  container,  one  end  of  which  is  closed 
by  a  cap  screwed  on,  but  to  which  may  be  attached  a  small  pumping  arrangement 
for  increasing  the  pressure  in  the  benzin  container;  b,  opening  for  filling;  c,  screw 
for  the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  the  benzin  vapors ;  d,  fastening  screw  for  the 
stamp;  e,  heating  pipe;  f,  iron  box,  which,  filled  with  alcohol,  serves  for  the  heat- 
ing of  the  apparatus  in  order  to  develop  the  benzin  vapors ;  g,  stamp. 


be  highly  recommended,  and  the  burning  of  the  meat  with  the  benzin 
flame  which  streams  out  from  the  heating  tube,  thereby  heating  constantly 
the  stamp,  is  not  to  be  feared.  For  the  quick  heating  of  several  branding 
stamps  the  large  benzin  heating  apparatus  of  the  firm  of  Hauptner,  Ber- 
lin, illustrated  on  page  12,  may  be  highly  recommended. 

[B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  17,  sections  i-n,  describes  in  detail 
the  procedure  of  marking  all  of  the  meat  whether  passed,  retained,  or 
condemned.  Doctor  Melvin  is  quoted  on  this  subject  as  follows: 

"The  marking  is  done  by  means  of  a  metal  or  rubber  stamp  and  a  purple  indeli- 
ble ink,  and  the  words  thus  stamped  are  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an  abbre- 
viation of  these  words,  with  the  establishment  number.  The  number  is  one  assigned 
to  the  house  by  the  Department  at  the  time  inspection  is  begun.  It  is  registered  in 
the  Department  records,  and  besides  serving  as  a  convenient  means  of  reference, 
it  provides  a  sure  method  of  tracing  meat  about  which  questions  may  subsequently 
arise. 

This  mark  is  absolutely  necessary  under  the  law  to  procure  the  movement  of 
the  meats  between  States.  The  law  forbids  carriers  to  transport  from  one  State 
to  another  any  meats  that  are  not  so  marked,  except  the  meats  of  farmers  and  of 
retail  butchers  and  dealers.  It  may  as  well  be  repeated  here,  in  order  to  emphasize 
the  statement,  that  the  Federal  law  does  not  and  cannot  forbid  the  carriage  of 
unmarked  meats  inside  a  State,  so  that  in  the  absence  of  State  laws  the  carriers  may, 
unmolested,  carry  any  kinds  of  meat  from  one  part  of  a  State  to  another."] 
12 


162         Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

B,     Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat 

If  a  condemnation  is  to  be  made  in  accordance  with  the  enumerated 
decisions  of  paragraphs  b-h,  of  page  158,  the  inspector  should  temporarily 
seize  the  affected  parts  or  the  entire  carcass  and  notify  the  owner  imme- 
diately, as  well  as  the  police  authorities,  stating  also  the  cause  of  the  con- 
demnation. The  police  authorities  have  to  determine  the  further  disposi- 
tion of  the  condemned  meat,  and  notify  the  owner  immediately  of  the 
course  taken. 

The  details  of  the  method  have  been  determined  by  the  individual 
state  governments,  thereby  greatly  facilitating  the  work  of  the  inspector 
after  their  notification  of  the  police  authorities,  etc. 

[The  disposition  of  condemned  meat  in  the  United  States  is  carried 
out  in  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulations  14-16,  which  con- 
tain the  instructions  as  to  the  course  to  be  followed  with  condemned  car- 
casses and  meat-food  products.] 

The  disposition  of  the  meat  which  is  to  be  declared  of  inferior  value 
(non-marketable)  and  which  was  described  on  page  158,  under  2c, 
belongs  to  the  authority  of  the  inspector,  providing  there  are  no  other  pro- 
visions made  by  special  state  regulations. 

1.     Meat  Passed  with   Restrictions  (passed  conditionally) 

There  are  five  methods  employed  to  remove  the  injurious  properties 
of  meat  belonging  to  this  group  :  Boiling,  steaming  in  steam  boiling  appa- 
ratus, rendering,  pickling,  and  refrigerating. 

(a)  The  boiling  method  is  well  adapted  for  the  destruction  of  all 
animal  parasites  occurring  in  meat  and  also  of  the  vegetative  forms  of  the 
infectious  disease-producers,  which  the  meat  may  contain.    For  the  killing 
of  spores,  on  the  other  hand,  simple  boiling  is  not  sufficiently  certain,  and 
for  chemical  poisons  it  is,  as  a  rule,  entirely  ineffective.    The  satisfactory 
boiling  of  meat  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  appearance  of  a  gray  or 
white  coloration  of  the  meat,  which  should  affect  even  the  deepest  layers. 

The  simple  boiling  in  open  boilers  can  be  easily  carried  out  every- 
where, but  it  has  the  disadvantage  that  in  the  process  a  comparatively 
large  quantity  of  the  soluble  nutritive  substances  are  extracted  from  the 
meat. 

(b)  Steaming  of  meat,  in  a  steam  boiling  apparatus,  is  an  innova- 
tion due  to  the  united  efforts  of  Hertwig,  Duncker,  and  Rohrbeck,  in  Ber- 
lin, and  which  has  been  further  improved  by  numerous  veterinarians  and 
technical  men.    This  method  has  for  its  purpose  to  obtain  a  high  tempera- 
ture in  the  inside  of  the  affected  meat,  which  is.  infected  with  certain  dis- 
eases, through  the  application  of  steam  under  pressure,  thereby  rendering 


Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat 


163 


larger  quantities  of  meat  suitable  for  human  food  with  as  slight  influence 
as  possible  on  its  nutritive  value.  The  apparatus  which  served  at  first  for 
this  purpose,  and  which  was  also  installed  in  numerous  abattoirs,  is  Rohr- 
beck's  steam  disinfector.  It  was  originally  destined  for  the  disinfection 
of  clothes,  but  has  been  equipped  for  the  sterilization  of  meat. 

In  the  course  of  years  various  other  steam  boiling  apparatuses  were 
constructed  which  gradually  forced  the  Rohrbeck  apparatus  to  the  back- 
ground. Concerning  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  these  disinfec- 
tors,  as  well  as  regarding  steam  boiling  itself,  time  has  developed  much 


Fig.  64.  Meat  steamer,  according  to  Engineer  Honnicke  in  Berlin-Schoneberg 
Vertical  section. 

special  literature.  At  present  the  following  are  of  foremost  interest: 
Honnicke's  meat  steamer  and  the  meat  steamer  of  the  firm  of  Rud.  H. 
Hartmann,  of  Berlin. 

Honnicke's  meat  steamer  is  represented  in  cross-section  in  Fig.  64. 

The  sterilizer  proper  consists  of  the  body  (i)  which,  on  its  lower  side,  is 
equipped  with  a  double  bottom.  On  this  steam  double  bottom  the  water  for  the 
production  of  the  sterilizing  steam  is  located.  A  pipe  (3)  which  contains  a  conve- 
niently placed  stop-valve,  conducts  the  steam  from  the  boiler  to  the  double  bottom, 


164          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

which  heats  the  water  contained  therein.  The  condensed  water  which  is  formed 
by  the  heating  or  boiler  steam  is  drawn  off  by  a  pipe  (4)  into  a  conveniently 
located  condensed  water  receiver.  The  containers  or  baskets  (5)  receive  the  meat. 
The  movable  door  (6),  which  is  attached  to  side  hinges,  is  closed  hermetically  with 
the  aid  of  clamp  screws.  In  order  to  draw  off  the  broth  conveniently  q  stop  cock 
(8)  is  supplied. 

At  the  side  of  the  sterilizer  proper  stands  the  condensor,  which  is  connected 
with  the  first  by  a  pipe  n,  which  draws  off  air,  the  mixture  of  steam  and  air,  and 
steam  from  the  body  i.  The  pipe  opens  into  a  chamber  12  above  the  bottom  13. 
The  chamber  9  is  protected  above  from  the  falling  dirt  by  a  loose  cover.  It 
receives  a  connection  (14)  for  the  supply  of  fresh  water  and  a  tap  cock  (15)  for  draw- 
ing off  hot  water.  To  the  lower  chamber  10  another  chamber  16  is  connected, 
which,  through  the  pipes  16',  16",  connects  with  the  outside.  An  emptying  cock  (17) 
serves  for  drawing  off  the  condensed  water.  In  the  operation  of  the  apparatus  the 
meat  is  placed  into  the  baskets,  the  double  bottom  is  filled  with  water,  and  the 
chamber  9  of  the  condensor  is  filled  with  fresh  water ;  chamber  10  must  be  empty 
at  the  commencement  of  the  operation.  After  this  has  been  completed  the  door  6 
is  closed,  and  the  steam  valve  in  pipe  3  is  opened,  when  the  apparatus  may  be  left 
alone.  There  is  no  air  cock  present.  At  the  commencement  of  the  heating  of  the 
water  to  100°  C.,  before  the  formation  of  steam,  the  air  volume  is  warmed  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  expands  correspondingly.  At  this  time  some  of  the  air  has 
already  entered  the  chambers  u,  12,  10,  and  16  from  the  body  I.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  the  steam  formation  a  steam-air  mixture  develops,  which  also 
reaches  the  chambers  12  and  10,  through  the  pipe  n,  in  the  proportion  of  the  dis- 
placement to  which  it  is  subjected  by  the  newly  formed  steam,  to  the  extent  of 
the  heat  not  absorbed  by  the  meat.  From  this  steam-air  mixture  the  steam  con- 
tents is  now  condensed  in  the  chambers  12  and  10,  and  the  air  leaves  through  the 
pipe  16,  while  the  condensed  water  accumulates  on  the  bottom  of  chamber  16. 
There  it  gradually  rises  higher,  until  it  finally  closes  the  lower  mouth  of  chamber 
16.  The  location  of  this  mouth  is  placed  at  a  selected  point  so  that  at  the  time  it 
gets  closed  all  the  air  has  certainly  disappeared  from  body  i.  After  the  closing 
of  chamber  16,  by  the  condensation,  the  development  of  pressure  commences,  that 
is,  the  steam  pressure  in  the  sterilizer  begins  to  rise.  The  maximal  heighth  of  the 
pressure  may  be  established  by  the  heighth  of  pipe  16.  This  may  be  extended  as 
high  as  it  is  desired.  After  the  closing  of  the  lower  mouth  of  chamber  16,  the 
water  of  condensation  rises  under  the  expansion  which  exists  in  body  I,  and 
effects  a  counter  pressure  against  the  present  steam  pressure.  At  a  corresponding 
heighth  the  pipe  16  is  led  either  directly  to  the  outside  or  into  the  canalization. 
If  the  pressure  in  body  i  should  reach  such  a  heighth  that  the  water  in  pipe  16 
would  exceed  the  highest  point,  it  would  then  overflow.  But  this  is  in  practice 
prevented  by  other  arrangements. 

One  of  these  arrangements  has  already  been  mentioned  in  discussing  the  abstrac- 
tion of  air:  the  steam  condensor.  The  surplus  of  steam,  which  on  account  of  its 
pressure  aims  toward  the  exit  of  chamber  16  which  is  closed  by  water,  must  pass 
the  cool  surfaces  of  the  condensor  formed  by  the  chamber  12  and  the  bottom  13. 
As  soon  as  the  steam  from  the  body  passes  in  here  the  cool  surfaces  abstract  from 
the  steam  a  part  of  its  temperature  and  expansion,  with  its  resulting  action  on  the 
column  of  water  is  diminished  and  the  expelling  of  water  therefore  is  checked.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  at  the  same  time  the  meat  contained  in  the  apparatus 
continually  abstracts  heat  from  the  sterilizing  steam  so  that  only  a  small  fraction 
of  the  steam  produced  in  the  double  bottom  comes  into  consideration  in  the  con- 


Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat 


165 


denser.  To  the  same  extent  as  the  taking  up  of  heat  by  the  meat  is  reduced,  the 
dropping  of  juice  from  the  meat  into  the  fluid  of  the  double  bottom  is  likewise 
reduced.  The  results  of  both  conditions  are  that  the  fluid  of  the  double  bottom — 
that  is  on  the  heating  surface — gradually  becomes  poorer  in  water;  on  the  other 
hand  it  becomes  continually  richer  in  constituents,  among  which  fat  is  the  most 
difficult  to  heat.  This  increasing  concentration  of  the  broth  stands  in  direct  oppo- 
site relation  to  the  quality  of  heat  absorption  of  the  meat.  The  consequence  of 
this  is  that  steam  production  and  the  quality  of  heat  absorption  become  proportional 
to  each  other,  as  the  steam  production  diminishes  with  the  loss  of  water  in  the 
broth.  Therefore  the  last  described  procedure  prevents  exceeding  the  desired 
highest  expansion.  Honnicke's  meat  steamer  is  also  advertised  as  an  apparatus 
equipped  with  direct  heating  arrangements. 
The  construction  of  Hartmann's  new  meat  steamer,  Franke's  system,  is 


Fig.  65.  Hartmann's  meat  steamer,   system   Franke,   in   vertical  section 

illustrated  in  Fig.  65.  The  fundamental  idea  on  which  the  construction  is 
based,  which  originated  with  the  deceased  veterinarian  M.  Franke,  of  the  Berlin 
abattoirs,  consists  in  eliminating  from  the  sterilizing  chamber  all  the  air  by  filling  it 
with  water  and  by  placing  the  meat  into  the  boiling  water  to  prevent  a  considerable 
soaking  by  the  formation  of  a  superficial  coagulated  layer.  The  discoverer  directed 
his  attention  in  the  first  place  to  the  very  important  process  of  the  abstraction  of  the 


1 66  Chap.   VI.     Decisions  of  the   Veterinary   Inspectors,   etc. 

air,  as  it  is  well  known  that  where  air  is  present  no  other  body  can  be  there  at  the 
same  time,  not  even  steam,  and  further,  that  the  air  on  account  of  its  slight  heat 
conducting  qualities  prevents  the  passage  of  heat  from  the  sterilizing  steam  into  the 
meat.  In  this  apparatus  the  abstraction  of  the  air  is  accomplished  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  vertical  boiler  is  closed  air  tight,  and  is  entirely  filled  with  hot  water,  which 
afterward,  in  the  course  of  the  process,  is  displaced  from  the  boiler  in  the  largest 
part  by  the  developing  steam.  The  abstraction  of  the  air  in  the  apparatus  is  com- 
plete without  doubt.  The  sterilizer  consists  of  a  vertical  boiler,  which  rests  on 
4  legs,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  steam  jacket  up  to  its  upper  angular  reinforcement. 
Above  the  angle-iron  an  overflow  pipe  branches  off,  which  unites  by  a  three-way  cock 
with  the  emptying  pipe  of  the  inside  chamber  of  the  jacket,  to  which  the  condensation 
drain  pipe  is  applied  at  the  lowest  part.  The  upper  closing  of  the  boiler  is  accom- 
plished by  a  cover  which  is  arched  toward  the  inside,  the  inside  surface  of  which 
reaches  deeper  into  the  cylinder  than  the  heighth  of  the  mouth  of  the  overflow  pipe. 
The  handling  of  the  cover  and  the  perforated  meat  baskets  is  accomplished  by 
the  aid  of  a  wheel-crane,  the  block  being  attached  to  the  side  of  the  apparatus  or  to 
one  of  its  legs.  After  the  cylindrical  chamber  is  filled  with  water  to  a  certain  heighth, 
which  is  brought  to  a  boiling  temperature  through  the  heating  of  the  steam  jacket, 
the  baskets  containing  the  meat  are  placed  into  the  boiling  water,  the  lowest  basket 
resting  on  several  shelves  of  angle-iron.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  highest  layers 
of  the  meat  are  submerged  in  the  water.  The  water  cools  off  several  degrees  while 
putting  in  the  meat,  but  is  again  soon  brought  to  a  boiling  point  by  the  continual 
heating  of  the  jacket.  After  the  meat  has  been  boiled  for  about  5  minutes  in  the 
open  boiler  the  cover  is  placed  on  and  closed  steam  tight,  whereby  all  the  super- 
fluous water  is  displaced  through  the  overflow  pipe  and  renders  the  boiler  free  of  air. 
In  keeping  open  the  lower  drainage  vent  the  steam  jacket  remains  in  operation.  The 
steam  developed  from  the  water  of  the  boiler  displaces  by  this  time  the  water  up  to  a 
heighth  of  the  bottom  drainage  stand-pipe.  As  soon  as  steam  escapes  from  the 
delivery-cock,  the  draining  valve  is  closed,  and  the  remainder  of  the  water  is  con- 
tinually evaporated;  in  this  steam  the  meat  is  well  cooked.  On  the  bottom  of  the 
sterilizer  the  dripping  juice  forms  with  the  water  a  bouillon,  on  the  surface  of  which 
a  layer  of  fat  collects.  After  a  certain  time  the  steam  jacket  ceases  to  be  operated, 
and  the  apparatus  is  left  to  itself  until  the  termination  of  the  sterilization.  After 
the  opening  and  removal  of  the  cover,  the  meat  baskets  are  taken  out  with  the  aid 
of  the  wheel-crane,  the  stand-pipe  is  lifted,  and  the  meat-broth  is  drained  off 
through  the  draining  valve.  The  apparatus  is  also  placed  on  the  market  in  the  form 
of  a  quadrangular  box  into  which  the  meat  baskets  are  placed  by  hand  and  made 
to  lay  alongside  each  other.  The  heating  surface  in  this  form  of  apparatus  lays  on 
the  bottom  of  the  box. 

In  Franke's  apparatus  with  direct  heating,  the  forged  iron  boiler  hangs  by  an 
upper  angle-ring  in  a  forged  iron  casing,  which  is  covered  with  fire-clay  on  the 
inside,  representing  the  covering  of  the  boiler.  The  casing  possesses  on  the  front 
face  a  preliminary  firing  place,  the  heating  fumes  of  which  envelope  the  boiler 
directly  from  all  sides  and  escapes  on  the  back  side  of  the  boiler  through  an  upper 
draft  as  flue.  A  mercury  safety  stand-pipe,  besides  a  safety  valve  and  manom- 
eter prevents  exceeding  the  permissible  pressure.  The  overflow  pipe  which  has 
been  already  discussed  in  detail  in  the  description  of  the  apparatus  for  steam  heating, 
has  its  continuance  in  the  inside  of  the  boiler  up  to  the  lowest  surface  of  the  water, 
beneath  the  lowest  of  the  two  meat  baskets.  It  works  in  a  similar  way  as  was 
described  in  its  construction  for  steam  heat.  To  obtain  the  required  pressure  for 
forcing  out  the  water  through  the  overflow  pipe,  the  safety  valve  is  weighted  down 


Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat 


167 


by  a  weight  pushed  down  on  its  lever  until  a  pressure  of  0.05  an  atmosphere  is 
obtained,  which,  after  the  escape  of  the  water,  is  again  removed.  Afterward  the 
fire  is  drawn  out  of  the  box  and  the  sterilization  is  concluded  with  the  heat  con- 
tained in  the  fire-clay  lining.  This  heat  suffices  to  completely  convert  into  steam 
the  water  which  is  contained  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  An  advantage  of  this 
apparatus  is  its  possibility  of  easy  transportation,  and  it  is  always  in  readiness  to 
be  put  up  for  immediate  operation.  The  flue  has  only  to  be  connected  with  a 
chimney  of  the  building  by  making  an  opening  into  it. 

Another  construction  of  meat  steamer  has  been  placed  on  the  market  by  the 
firm  of  Rud.  A.  Hartmann,  under  the  designation  of  Hartmann's  New  Meat  Steril- 
izer, patent  of  Becker  and  Ulmann,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  66,  and  which  is  also 
constructed  for  direct  firing. 


Fig.    66.  Hartmann's    new    meat    sterilizer    in    vertical    section. 
Ulmann's  patent. 


Becker    and 


The  sterilizer  consists  of  a  forged  iron  vertical  cylinder  a,  which  in  front  is 
supplied  with  an  easily  moving  door,  and  on  the  lower  part  it  has  a  cleating  for 
steam  heating  c.  From  the  deepest  point  of  the  inside  room  a  pipe  f  branches  off 
to  the  receiving  tank  g,  which  is  set  up  to  the  side  of  the  sterilizer.  The  cock  h, 
serves  for  the  draining  of  the  entire  apparatus.  The  neatly  tinned  meat  baskets  i, 
which  are  constructed  of  perforated  sheet-iron,  are  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
meat  to  be  sterilized,  and  they  can  be  comfortably  slid  into  the  apparatus  and  also 
drawn  out  on  ledges  which  are  fastened  to  the  sides  of  the  cylinder.  The  water 
which  condenses  in  the  steam  cleating  c,  is  separated  by  an  automatic  condensation 
drawer  k.  A  cock  serves  for  the  abstraction  of  air  from  the  inside  of  the  apparatus. 
Before  beginning  the  operation  the  boiler  is  filled  with  pure  water  to  the  level  /, 
then  the  meat  is  sprinkled  with  spices,  placed  into  the  perforated  baskets  i,  shoved 
into  the  apparatus  and  the  door  closed.  Then  through  the  valve  e,  the  steam  cleat- 
ing c  is  heated  up  whereby  the  water  is  soon  brought  to  evaporation.  An  auto- 
matic arrangement  for  the  abstraction  of  air  separates  the  air  contained  in  che 
apparatus  during  the  development  of  steam,  so  that  soon  the  air  is  sufficiently 
abstracted  from  the  entire  apparatus  and  is  entirely  filled  up  with  steam.  From  this 
moment  on  the  meat  is  subjected  to  the  influence  of  steam  at  100°  C.  The  same 
condenses  on  the  meat,  and  heats  it  up,  the  condensate  drips  below,  and  is  again 
converted  into  steam  on  the  heating  surface  c. 


168          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 


With  the  increased  warming  of  the  meat  the  consumption  of  steam  decreases. 
But  inasmuch  as  the  steam  production  on  the  heating  surface  c  remains  approxi- 
mately the  same,  the  result  is  that  more  steam  is  produced  than  is  used  up. 
Through  this  a  slight  pressure  develops,  which  presses  the  water  from  the  sterilizer 
to  the  receiving  tank  g.  The  heating  surface  c  is  consequently  more  or  less  deprived 
of  water,  and  in  the  same  relation  the  steam  production  is  diminished.  In  this  way 
the  balancing  of  the  steam  production  and  the  heat  absorption  of  the  meat  is  spon- 
taneously accomplished.  The  pressure  in  the  sterilizer  can  never  rise  higher  than 
the  corresponding  pressure  in  the  receiving  tank  g,  and  this  amounts  at  maximum 
to  about  500  mm.,  when  the  temperature  of  the  steam  is  fully  100°  C.  As  soon  as 
the  temperature  penetrates  to  the  inside  of  the  meat  and  reaches  80°  C.,  the  steam 
is  shut  off  by  the  closing  of  valve  e,  and  then  the  apparatus  is  opened  and  its  con- 
tenls  removed,  and  the  bouillon  is  drawn  off  by  the  cock  h. 

In  order  to  control  the  temperature 
obtained  in  the  steamed  meat  and  for 
the  outside  indication  for  the  conclusion 
of  the  sterilization,  it  is  advisable  to  place 
into  one  of  the  pieces  of  meat  an  elec- 
tric contact  thermometer,  of  which  a 
simple  construction  is  represented  in 
Fig.  67.  Other  similar  instruments  were 
constructed  by  Franke,  Honnicke,  and 
others. 

The  signal  thermometer,  Honnicke's 
model,  is  represented  in  Fig.  68.  This 
instrument  contains  a  mercury  signal 
thermometer,  in  which  the  gradua- 
tions are  made  as  fine  as  possible,  and 
is  combined  with  a  metallic  protective 
casing.  The  thermometer  proper  con- 
sists of  a  glass  body  a,  with  mercury 
bulb  a' ,  and  capillary  tube  a".  Into  the 
mercury  bulb  on  the  lower  part  is  a 
platinum  wire  b,  melted  in,  and  a  similar 
kind  b'  is  applied  in  the  capiLary  tube 
a"  at  a  corresponding  heighth  which 
should  indicate  the  temperature  to  be 


68 


Fig.    67.      Electric   mer- 
cury contact  thermometer. 


Fig.  68.  Electric  sig- 
nal thermometer,  models 
of  H  6  n  n  i  c  k  e-B  e  r  1  i  n 
( Schoneberg) . 


attained    by    signal.      This    thermometer 
is    placed    into    a     metallic     tube     which 

Fig   67        (Schoneberg).  is    provided    with    a    slit    c',    which    is 

closed    below    by    a    perforated    winding 

stopper  d,  made  of  insulating  material.  Through  this  perforation  the 
platinum  wire  b  is  inserted  and  is  pressed  in  with  the  aid  of  the  perfora- 
tion e'  and  a  contact  screw  e",  which  is  supplied  with  a  knob.  Above,  on  the 
casing  c,  rests  a  metallic  plate  f,  through  which  the  platinum  wire  b'  is  inserted. 
This  is  then  also  pressed  in  with  the  aid  of  the  perforation  g'  and  a  contact  screw  g:f 
which  is  supplied  with  a  knob  g.  After  the  mercury  column  has  expanded  at  the 
desired  temperature  to  the  upper  platinum  wire,  the  current  circuit  closes.  The 
current  runs  from  the  current  producer  through  the  conduit  wire  i  to  the  ringing 
apparatus  and  again  to  the  current  producer,  whereby  the  signal  is  sounded.  In 
employing  the  signal  thermometer,  it  is  inserted  with  the  mercury  bulb  downwards 


Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat  169 

perpendicularly  into  a  piece  of  meat  of  medium  weight.  Before  the  insertion  it  is 
advisable  te  be  convinced  that  not  a  drop  of  mercury  is  torn  from  the  column.  If 
this  is  the  case  it  is  returned  to  the  other  portion  of  the  mercury  through  shaking 
or  by  some  other  method.  It  is  also  advisable  to  observe  whether  a  contact  exists  by 
turning  the  squeeze  screw  to  the  right.  Both  insulated  wires  leading  to  the  instru- 
ment are  conducted  into  the  meat  steamer  of  Honnicke  (Fig.  64)  simply  through 
the  notch  in  the  door.  At  the  place  where  the  wires  touch  the  border  of  the  door 
either  a  simple  sheet  of  paper  is  placed  around  them  or  they  are  covered  with  a 
paper  husk  supplied  with  the  instrument.  In  closing  the  door  the  wires  are 
squeezed  between  the  border  and  the  jam  of  the  door;  this,  however,  does  not  pro- 
duce any  inconvenience  in  the  tight  closing  of  the  door. 

The  thorough  steaming  of  the  meat  with  the  various  apparatuses  requires,  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations,  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  in  the  inside  of  the  pieces  of 
meat  for  2-2^  hours.  In  this  process  the  loss  of  weight  of  the  meat  is  considerably 
less  than  in  cooking  under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  difference  amounting  in  beef 
to  25-26  per  cent.,  and  in  pork  to  12-13  per  cent.  The  meat  remains  very  juicy,  of 
a  spicy,  pleasant  taste  and  odor,  reminding  one  of  roasted  meat. 

The  apparatuses  are  principally  utilized  in  rendering  uninjurious  the  meat  of  tuber- 
cular animals  in  certain  forms  of  the  disease,  as  well  as  in  trichinous  and  measly 
meat.  Other  various  kinds  of  disinfectors  serve  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  above- 
discussed  apparatuses,  as  for  instance,  the  disinfector  of  Budenberg-Dortmund  and 
the  steam  cooking  and  rendering  apparatus  of  Seiffert  (W.  Boese,  Jr.,  in  Breslau). 

(c)  Regarding  the  process  of  melting  out  fat    which  is  employed 
for  the  extraction  of  fat  from  diseased  animals   (tuberculosis,  measles) 
only  brief  mention  will  be  made. 

The  cut  or  mashed  fat  is  rendered  in  ordinary  open  kettles,  during 
which  the  temperature  rises  to  150°  C.  Also  the  described  meat  steamers 
of  Honnicke,  Hartmann,  and  others,  as  well  as  the  cleated  boilers  with 
steam  running  through,  are  adapted  for  this  purpose.  However,  the 
liquid  fat  must  not  be  drawn  off  before  a  temperature  of  at  least  100°  C. 
is  registered.  The  connective  tissue  residue  of  the  fat  tissues  is  then 
scooped  off  and  the  latter  are  deprived  of  fat  by  pressure  as  much  as 
possible. 

[In  the  United  States  carcasses  showing  lesions  which  justify  the 
passing  of  the  tissues  for  lard  have  to  be  subjected,  according  to  the  B.  A. 
I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  10,  paragraph  3,  and  section  13,  rule 
D,  to  a  temperature  of  220°  F.  for  not  less  than  four  hours.] 

(d)  With  the  commercial  method  of  pickling,  measly  meat  may  also 
be  rendered  uninjurious  if  the  pickling  is  carried  out   sufficiently  long 
(3-4  weeks)   and  if  the  pieces  of  meat  do  not  exceed  over  2  kg.     The 
destroying  action  of  the  pickling  is  very  slight  on  pathogenic  bacteria  or 
their  products ;  nevertheless,  it  may  be  applied  with  the  meat  of  hogs 
which  are  condemned  by  the  inspectors  on  account  of  swine  erysipelas, 
hog  cholera,  and  swine  plague. 


170          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

[Such  dispositions  are  not  admissible  in  the  United  States  with  the 
carcasses  affected  with  the  above-mentioned  diseases,  and  the  regulations 
governing  the  disposition  of  such  affected  carcasses  will  be  referred  to 
under  the  discussion  of  those  diseases.] 

(e)  The  method  designated  as  "thorough  chilling"  is  employed 
exclusively  on  slightly  measled  beef,  and  serves  to  keep  the  meat  in  a 
fresh  condition.  The  action  of  low  temperature  on  the  measles  does 
not  destroy  them,  but  they  lose  their  power  to  develop  during  the  time 
the  meat  is  retained.  The  employment  of  this  method  necessitates  well- 
arranged  meat-cooling  rooms  in  all  seasons. 

The  sale  of  conditionally  passed  meat  which  has  been  rendered  fit  for 
human  consumption  is  only  permitted  after  making  known  this  condition, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  after  it  has  been  satisfactorily 
marked.  The  more  special  measures  concerning  this  marking  are  left  to 
the  state  governments.  The  sale  of  such  meat  should  always  be  carried 
out  under  the  restrictions  corresponding  to  those  mentioned  on  page  153 
for  the  Freibank. 

Permission  for  the  conditionally  passed  meat  to  be  utilized  by  the 
owner  in  his  own  household  is  not  excluded  after  the  meat  has  been  ren- 
dered fit  for  consumption  if  the  owners  are  not  butchers,  meat  dealers, 
hotel  or  restaurant  keepers. 

2,     Meat  of  Inferior  Quality 

The  sale  and  utilization  of  meat  which  has  been  declared  of  inferior 
quality  nonmarketable)  should  be  followed  under  the  same  conditions 
as  were  explained  above  for  the  conditionally  passed  meat. 

[The  regulations  governing  the  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States 
do  not  contain  provisions  for  passing  certain  dressed  carcasses  condi- 
tionally. An  exception  is  only  made  with  certain  slight  cases  of  tuber- 
culosis and  hog  cholera,  when  the  carcasses  may  be  passed  conditionally 
for  lard.  Accordingly,  the  Freibank  system  and  the  sterilization  of 
meat  is  not  practiced  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.] 

3,     Absolutely  Condemned  Meat 

The  harmless  disposition  of  meat  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  con- 
sumption has  to  be  affected  by  a  higher  degree  of  heat  (cooking  or 
steaming  until  the  maceration  o£  the  soft  parts,  dry  distillation,  burning) 
by  chemical  means  until  the  dissolution  of  the  soft  parts  or  through  bury- 
ing. The  products  obtained  by  the  first-mentioned  method  may  be  util- 
ized in  the  industrial  arts. 

Before  burying,  deep  cuts  should  be  made  into  the  meat,  and  sprinkled 
over  with  lime  or  fine  dry  sand ;  or  tar,  crude  oil  (carbolic  acid,  cresol),  or 
alpha-naphthylamin  in  5  per  cent,  solution  should  be  poured  over  it  (clena- 


isposition  of  Condemned  Meat 


171 


turing).  The  latter  procedure  is  also  recommended  when  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  condemned  meat  cannot  take  place  immediately  under  the 
supervision  of  the  inspector.  The  marking  of  the  condemned  meat  can  be 
omitted  only  on  single  portions  of  meat,  when  a  harmless  disposition  of 
the  condemned  parts  is  carried  out  immediately  in  the  presence  of  the 
inspector.  Otherwise  all  condemned  organs  and  parts  must  be  positively 
marked  with  a  condemned  stamp,  whereby  the  condemnation  becomes 
official. 

For  the  temporary  retaining  of  condemned  meat,  especially  in  larger  abattoirs, 
special  containers  should  be  provided  from  which  removal  of  condemned  parts 
should  be  impossible  except  by  the  proper  authorities.  For  the  collection  of  such 
meats  a  box  on  a  cart  frame  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  69.  The  condemned  part  is 


Fig.  69.  Collecting  box  for  condemned  meat  on  cart  structure,  in  section.  Model 
of  Honnicke-Berlin   (Schoneberg). 

thrown  into  the  trough  c,  and  the  crank  is  turned  around  180°,  whereby  the  piece 
drops  into  the  box  A.  The  taking  out  of  the  condemned  pieces  without  the  removal 
of  the  locked  cover  with  the  trough  attached  to  it  is  impossible,  as  the  trough  fills 
out  the  opening  of  the  box  and  besides  in  turning  over  the  box  the  trap  board 
immediately  covers  the  split  between  the  trough  wall  and  the  box  cover. 

(a)  The  simple  boiling  of  the  meat  in  open  boilers  until  the  soft 
parts  are  falling  apart  is  carried  out  in  old  flaying  plants  in  order  to  obtain 
the  fat,  bones  and  the  mass  of  meat  boiled  to  pieces;  the  method  is  less 
rational  and  from  a  hygienic  standpoint  it  is  not  without  objection. 


172          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

(b)  Boiling  meat  to  pieces  in  a  high-pressure  steam  apparatus 
includes  the  advantages  of  a  certain  sterilization,  together  with  the  gain- 
ing of  valuable  products.  The  apparatus  works  with  expended  water 
steam,  conveying  to  the  meat  a  temperature  up  to  150°  C.,  and  the  meat 
is  broken  up  to  such  an  extent  that  the  principal  constituents  may  be 
obtained  separately  (bones,  fat,  insoluble  albumen,  and  other  substances 
as  well  as  glue  substances). 

Of  the  high-pressure  steam  apparatuses  the  following  are  most  exten- 
sively in  operation : 

(A)  The  simple  steam  digester  (steam  barrel)  is  as  a  rule,  a  perpen- 
dicularly constructed  iron  container,  supplied  with  a  sifting  bottom,  which 
can  be  closed  steam  tight  on  the  top  by  a  cover.     Below  it  is  equipped  with 
arrangements  for  the  draining  of  fluids,  and  it  also  has  a  manhole.     On 
various  parts  of  the  digester,  steam  of  2-3  atmospheric  pressures  may  be 
conveyed  to  the  pieces  of  meat  placed  in  the  apparatus. 

After  sufficient  steaming,  the  fluids  which  are  collected  below  the  sifting  bot- 
tom (condensed  water,  meat-broth,  and  fat)  are  drained  off,  and  the  firmer  masses 
still  intact  are  removed  from  the  digester.  From  the  latter  the  bones  are  utilized 
under  certain  conditions  for  the  preparations  of  bone  flour,  and  from  the  other  parts 
muscle  flour  is  obtained,  after  they  are  first  dry-cured  and  ground  up  in  mills;  or 
the  bones  are  dried  and  ground  with  the  meat  and  the  product  is  called  "animal 
body  flour,"  which  is  advantageously  utilized  as  a  fertilizer  and  food  substance. 
While  the  fat  serves  for  the  manufacture  of  soap,  ointments,  etc.,  the  broth,  which  is 
a  burdensome  by-product  on  account  of  its  great  decomposing  qualities,  can  be  util 
ized  only  to  a  certain  extent  at  such  places  where  it  can  be  immediately  and  freshly 
used  as  a  soil  fertilizer. 

(B)  Similar  to  the  simple  digester  is  the  flaying  disinfector  of  Riet- 
schel  and  Henneberg,  the  construction  of  which  is  of  greater  advantage 
than  that  of  the  former.     Besides  it  is  equipped  with  accessory  apparatus 
for  an  improved  method  of  obtaining  the  fat  and  for  the  condensation  of 
the  evaporations.     The  apparatus  is  based  on  the  system  first  employed 
by  veterinarian  De  La  Croix,  director  of  the  Antwerp  abattoirs  for  the 
utilization  of  the   animal   parts.     The   drying  and   comminuting  of  the 
cooked  masses  are  accomplished  by  special  mechanisms. 

Similar  to  the  flaying  disinfector  is  the  old  Hartmann's  extraction 
apparatus. 

While  in  the  previously  mentioned  apparatus  the  rendering  process 
with  the  steam  in  the  digesters  is  only  preparatory,  since  it  is  necessary  to 
transport  the  nonliquid  masses  from  the  digester  to  the  drying  and 
grinding  contrivances,  the  following  rendering  methods  possess  the 
advantage  that  the  entire  process  is  carried  out  in  one  and  the  same  appa- 
ratus. The  latter  is  not  opened  during  the  rendering  and  processing,  and 
at  the  end  only  the  finished  products  are  apparent. 


Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat 


173 


(C)  Podewil's  system,  which  has  been  in  use  for  23  years,  was  first 
to  inaugurate  horizontally  constructed,  rotating  drums  for  the  steaming 
of  animal  parts,  and  in  this  way  made  possible  the  sterilization,  drying,  and 
grinding  of  the  product  in  a  single  closed  apparatus.  The  construction 
characteristics  of  Podewil's  system,  which  in  the  course  of  years  expe- 
rienced various  improvements  and  which  is  at  this  time  manufactured  by 
the  Podewil  factories  in  Augsberg,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  71,  in  connection 
with  the  following  description  of  its  operation : 

Podewil's  rotating  drum  consists  of  an  inside  cylinder,  an  outside  heat  cleating 
and  also  beatable  double  bottoms.  An  accessory  receptacle  called  ''hot  watei- 
montejus"  is  also  supplied  with  steam  heating  arrangements  for  the  heating  of  the 
washing  fluid  which  it  contains.  The  liquid  conduct  pipe  Z,  and  the  fat  drawing 
pipe  F,  are  connected  with  the  drum  by  hollandic  screwing,  and  are  easily  taken  off. 


Fig.  70.     Section  through  Podewil  drum  with  specially  large  manhole. 


With  the  fat  conduit  is  connected  a  Liebig's  cooler  K,  and  a  gas  separator  G.  The 
steam  is  conveyed  and  the  condensed  water  from  the  heat  cleating  is  led  off 
through  one  of  the  hollow  bearing  plugs  of  the  apparatus,  while  the  steam  from  the 
inside  of  the  cylinder  is  drawn  off  through  the  other  bearing  plug. 

For  the  rendering  of  large  undivided  animal  carcasses  (as  for  instance  in 
anthrax,  glanders)  there  has  been  recently  constructed  Podewil's  tympanum  with 
double  manhole,  Fig.  70,  one  of  which  is  of  such  a  size  that  even  the  large  carcasses 
can  be  placed  undivided  into  the  drum. 

Accessory  machines  are  necessary,  such  as  steam  boiler,  steam  engine,  or  other 
motors  and  an  air  pump  with  a  condensator. 

Description  of  the  Operation 

The  carcass  or  material  is  placed  through  the  manhole  M  into  the  Podewil 
apparatus ;  the  manhole  is  then  closed  steam  tight,  and  the  air  is  removed  from  the 
apparatus  by  the  aid  of  an  air  pump.  At  the  same  time  the  fluid  in  the  "hot  water- 


174          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

montejus"  is  heated  with  boiler  steam  to  3  atmospheres  of  pressure.  Next  a  por- 
tion of  the  heated  fluid  is  pressed  by  the  conduit  Z  into  the  apparatus,  and  the  heat 
cleating  is  heated  by  boiler  steam,  whereby  the  inside  of  the  cylinder  develops  a 
pressure  of  3  atmospheres.  This  pressure  is  maintained  for  about  4  hours,  and  the 
apparatus  is  from  time  to  time  rotated.  Through  the  action  of  the  hot  fluid,  all 
disease  germs  are  destroyed  with  a  certainty,  the  carcass  is  cooked  to  a  pulp,  and 
the  fat  substances  are  separated.  The  remaining  quantity  of  fluid  from  the  "hot 
water-montejus"  is  then  pressed  over  into  the  apparatus;  thus  the  inside  of  the 
cylinder  is  filled  to  the  top,  and  the  material  is  again  washed  through  and  lixiviated. 
The  fat  swimming  on  the  surface  then  flows  through  the  opened  cock  F  into  the 
conduit  F,  passes  the  cooler  K  and  gas  separator  G,  and  is  drawn  through  the 
drawing  pipe  R  in  a  pure  cooled  state  into  fat  barrels  in  a  condition  for 
immediate  sale. 


n 

Podewils  -Apparat.U«-*L, « 


Fig.  71.     Section  through  the  apparatus  of  Podewil's  system 


The  removal  of  the  fat  is  followed  immediately  by  the  drying  of  the  other 
products  in  the  Podewil  apparatus.  Previously  to  this  a  like  quantity  of  fluid  to  that 
which  has  been  taken  from  the  "montejus"  is  returned  in  order  to  be  used  again  in 
a  similar  way  during  the  next  operation. 

The  drying  and  grinding  of  the  carcass  material  is  accomplished  by  the  action 
of  the  boiler  steam  led  into  the  heat  cleating,  which  thoroughly  dries  the  material 
in  about  6  hours,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  roller  W,  which  lays  free  in  the  rotating 
apparatus,  it  is  converted  into  a  finely  ground  dry  product  ready  for  the  market 
(meat  flour).  After  the  manhole  M  is  opened  and  the  rotation  is  continued  for 
about  10  minutes  longer,  the  apparatus  empties  itself  into  the  carts  placed  under 
the  opening. 

The  vapors  from  the  products  developed  during  the  drying  process  inside  of 
the  cylinder  are  sucked  out  through  the  curved  pipe  by  the  air  pump  and  are  then 
conveyed  into  a.  condensator  where  they  are  mixed  with  water  and  condensed.  This 
condensation  water  is  the  only  waste  water  obtained;  it  is  entirely  uninjurious,  and 
is  drained  off  as  clean  water  into  the  sewer  or  into  the  sinking  hole.  The  slight 
quantities  of  uncondensible  gases  are  conveyed  under  the  fire  grate  of  the  steam 
boiler  and  are  burned  there. 

The  pure  hot  water  condensed  in  the  heat  cleating  of  the  apparatus  is  refed 
;nto  the  steam  boiler.  The  entire  process  lasts  only  10-12  hours. 


Disposition  of  Condemned  Meat 


175 


The  utilization  of  fat  and  animal  flour  with  the  Podewil's  method  depends 
naturally  on  the  material  to  be  worked  up.  In  the  rendering  works  of  Dresden,  by 
?  mixed  working  of  carcasses  and  meat-inspection  condemnations  a  yearly  average 
of  10  per  cent,  fat  and  20.87  per  cent,  animal  flour  was  obtained.  The  latter  con- 
sisted in  the  average  of  9.64  per  cent,  nitrogen  (60.22  per  cent,  raw  protein)  12.70 
per  cent,  fat,  18.87  per  cent,  ash  (in  which  7.19  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  was  con- 
tained) and  6.91  per  cent  water.  The  animal  flour  on  account  of  the  large  quantity 
of  nitrogen,  fat,  and  phosphoric  acid  which  it  contains  makes  it  a  valuable  fattening 
food  substance  for  hogs,  cattle,  fowls,  and  fish,  the  uninjurious  effects  of  which 
were  extensively  investigated  by  Glage. 

(D)  Rud.  A.  Hartmann's  system  of  Berlin  (Fig.  72)  is  similar  to  the  above  - 
described  system  of  Podewil.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  latter  first  of  all  by  the 
perforated  drum,  which  rotates  inside  of  a  double  walled,  stationary  drum,  by  ren- 


Fig.   72.  Model   of  Hartmann's    system   of  carcass-destruction   and   utilization 
apparatus. 

dering  without  the  action  of  direct  steam,  which  is  produced  in  the  evaporator  by 
steam  from  the  boiler  and  is  conveyed  from  the  evaporator  to  the  extractor;  and 
also  by  the  continual  separation  of  the  fat  and  glue  water  during  the  cooking.  The 
illustration  herewith  shows  the  design  of  the  entire  system  of  Hartmann's  appa- 
ratus, which  consists  of  5  single  containers  fed  by  pipes.  The  large  horizontal  cylin- 
drical container  is  the  extraction  and  drying  apparatus  proper.  This  contains  in 
the  inside  a  sieving  drum  which  receives  the  raw  material,  and  which  can  be  rotated 
by  the  engine  a.  Here  the  carcass  material  is  steamed  through,  extracted  and 
finally  dried  to  animal  flour  ready  for  the  market.  The  fluids  extracted  from  the 
raw  material — fat,  glue,  and  broth,  flow  through  the  pipe  b,  into  the  second  con- 
tainer which  is  the  fat  separator,  in  which  the  fat  is  separated  from  the  glue  broth. 


176         Chap  VI.     Decisions  oi  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

The  fat  collects  in  the  upper  conical  part  of  the  container,  becomes  visible  on  the 
indication  glass  c,  attached  to  it,  and  can  be  drawn  off  by  opening  the  valve  d, 
which  is  applied  at  the  highest  point  to  the  fat  tank,  while  the  defattened  glue 
broth  passes  spontaneously  into  the  third  container,  the  recipient.  The  pipe  e  con- 
nects the  recipient  with  the  extraction  apparatus.  From  the  recipient  the  glue 
broth  is  periodically  conveyed  by  the  opening  of  cock  f  into  the  fourth  container  to 
the  so-called  evaporator  in  order  to  be  here  evaporated  with  the  aid  of  a  coiled  heat- 
ing arrangement  to  a  gelatinous  consistence. 

The  steam  developed  in  this  process  from  the  glue  broth  is  not  conveyed  to 
special  condensation  arrangements  and  precipitated  with  cold  water  as  in  the  old 
apparatuses,  but  it  is  returned  to  the  extractor  in  order  to  serve  as  working  steam 
for  the  cooking  and  drying  process. 

For  this  purpose  a  pipe  g  leads  from  the  evaporator  to  the  extractor  which 
divides  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  one  h  can  be  closed  by  a  valve  and  leads 
to  the  inside  of  the  apparatus,  and  therefore  to  the  raw  material,  while  the  other  i 
can  be  also  closed  by  a  valve,  and  is  led  into  the  cleating  which  envelops  the  entire 
extraction  apparatus.  This  pipe  permits  the  utilization  of  the  steam  which  devel- 
ops in  the  evaporator  from  the  glue  broth,  according  to  the  desire,  either  for  the 
steaming  or  for  the  drying  of  the  carcass  material.  The  water  extracted  thereby  in 
the  form  of  steam  from  the  evaporator  reaches  either  the  extractor  or  the  cleating 
and  returns  again  through  the  cock  b  or  cock  />  into  the  fat  separator  and  the 
recipient.  Accordingly  a  constant  circulation  takes  place  in  the  apparatus  of  the 
water  originating  from  the  carcass  itself.  Therefore  the  more  water  is  abstracted 
in  the  form  of  steam  from  the  evaporator  naturally  the  more  concentrated  will 
become  'the  glue  broth,  until  at  the  conclusion  of  the  working  process  the  finished 
thickened  glue  jelly  is  obtained  in  the  evaporator.  At  that  time  in  the  extractor 
the  finished  dried  animal  flour  is  obtained,  and  in  the  recipient  and  in  the  fat  sepa- 
rator remains  the  distilled  meat  water;  the  fat  on  the  other  hand  has  been  already 
drawn  off  into  the  fat  container  during  the  working  process. 

The  fifth  container  is  placed  above  the  extractor  and  serves  for  temporary 
receiving  of  the  thickened  glue  broth,  in  order  to  convey  the  same  again  at  the 
proper  time  to  the  extractor,  in  case  it  is  desired  to  work  up  together  the  extracted 
meat  and  bone  masses  with  the  glue  jelly  to  a  glue-containing  animal  flour. 

The  opening  in  the  extractor  which  can  be  closed  with  the  cover  m,  is  of  such 
a  size  that  the  sieving  drum  may  be  placed  into  it  and  also  removed  and  replaced 
again  in  case  of  repair.  Besides  the  large  cover  opening  (with  the  exception  of 
the  smallest  size  apparatus)  permits  also  the  introduction  of  undivided  carcasses. 

The  inside  of  the  extractor  contains  the  revolvable  sieving  drum,  which  is 
closed  by  the  removable  cover  n,  and  on  the  external  circumference  it  is  equipped 
with  stirring  arms  o. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  extraction,  which  on  an  average  requires  four  hours, 
the  sieving  drum  is  made  to  rotate  and  at  the  same  time  by  the  heating  of  the 
double  cleating  the  drying  of  the  extracted  meat  and  bone  masses  contained  in  the 
extractor  is  carried  out.  The  material,  which  by  the  thorough  steaming  becomes 
entirely  soft,  is  ground  up  in  the  sieving  drum,  falls  through  the  sieve  holes,  and 
thus  reaches  into  the  space  between  the  sieving  drum  and  the  heated  double  cleating. 
Here  it  is  seized  by  the  stirring  arms,  is  always  brought  in  contact  with  new  sur- 
faces to  the  heated  surface,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  ground  to  a  powder.  The 
vapors  set  free  from  the  drying  product  are  sucked  out  with  the  aid  of  a  wet  air 
pump,  and  precipitated  with  direct  contact  with  cold  water.  Other  noncondensable 
gases  are  conveyed  under  the  furnace  and  are  burned  there. 


Disposition  of  the  Condemned  Meat 


177 


The  drying  process  in  the  smaller  apparatuses  of  Hartmann  is  calculated  to 
take  about  2  hours  while  in  the  larger  ones  from  3-5  hours.  After  this  time  the 
entire  dried  product  is  contained  as  a  pulverized  animal  flour  outside  of  the  sieve 
drum,  and  can  be  emptied  from  the  apparatus  by  removing  the  cover  and  turning 
the  extractor  180°. 

The  glue  steam  condensate  which  develops  in  the  double  cleating  of  the 
extractor  during  the  drying  process,  the  "distilled  meat  water,"  accumulates  in  the 
accessory  containers,  the  fat  separator  and  recipient,  which  are  supplied  before  the 
commencement  of  the  drying  process,  and  can  be  drained  from  them  after  the  con- 
clusion of  the  working  process  into  the  sewer.  If  there  is  ru>  sewer  then  the  waste 
water  which  in  itself  is  clean  and  sterile  is  collected  in  a  special  cooling  basin,  from 
which  it  is  drained  off  after  cooling  into  the  mill  trough. 

Recently  the  firms  Hochmuth,  in  Dresden,  as  well  as  Venuleth  and  Ellenberger, 
in  Darmstadt,  and  Grove  in  Charlottenburg,  Berlin,  constructed  apparatuses  which 
are  based  on  the  same  principle  as  the  two  above-described  systems.  While  the 
last  two  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  tested  in  practice,  the  cheap  apparatus  of 
Hochmuth  has  already  proven  itself  very  useful  in  various  rendering  works. 

(E)  A  sterilization,  but 
not  an  entirely  complete 
comminution  of  animal 
parts,  is  obtained  by  Dr. 
Garth's  collecting  con- 
tainer and  destroying  ap- 
paratus (Fig.  73),  which 
is  constructed  in  the 
boiler  works  of  Gohrig 
and  Leuchs  A-G.,  in 
Darmstadt.  Regarding 
the  operation,  productive- 
ness, advantages,  and  de- 
fects of  the  apparatus, 
information  is  given  in 
the  publications  of  Garth, 
Clausen,  Resow,  and 
others. 

The  apparatus  consists 
of  a  double  walled  con- 
tainer, which  can  be  eas- 
ily turned  by  hand 
around  its  transverse 
axis;  it  is  constructed  in 
three  sizes  of  300-800  kg. 
contents.  If  the  appa- 
ratus is  not  worked  the 
container  is  turned  in 
such  a  way  that  the 

upper  opening  lies  at  a  man's  heighth.  After  opening  the  closed,  gas-tight 
valve  the  products  "are  introduced  into  a  cylindrical  receiver  and  fall  from  here, 
after  they  have  passed  another  air-tight  closing  valve,  into  the  inside  of  the  boiler. 
A  removal  of  the  contents  is  impossible. 

When  the  working  up  of  the  product  is  to  take  place,  the  closing  head  is 
removed  and  a  cover  is  tightly  screwed  on.  For  about  10-14  hours  steam  is  con- 

13 


Fig.   73.  External  view  of  Dr.   Garth's  collecting  re- 
ceptacle  and   destruction   apparatus. 


178         Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

veyed  into  the  inside  of  the  cleating  at  5  atmospheres  of  pressure.  The  fluid  con- 
stituents are  /drawn  off  in  accordance  with  necessity  into  the  recipient  standing  at 
the  side  of  the  apparatus ;  the  fat  may  be  drawn  off  here.  Near  the  recipient  is 
located  a  stirring  valve  to  mix  the  glue  water  with  water  from  a  conduit  and  lead 
it  into  the  sewer.  During  the  steaming  the  container  is  here  and  there  turned  for 
a  thorough  mixing  of  the  material,  and  to  offer  the  steam  new  points  of  action. 
As  end  products  are  obtained  fat,  glue  broth  and  residues.  The  latter  forms 
after  the  cooling  a  brown,  soil-like  crumbling  mass  intermixed  with  bones  and 
fibers,  which,  after  a  further  communication,  is  utilized  as  food  for  hogs  and  fowls. 

(c)  A  chemical  destruction  of  the  meat  may  be  obtained  in  various 
ways.     An  older  method  consists  in  the  treatment  of  the  meat  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  steam.     The  meat  is  placed  into  acid  tanks  or  into  wooden 
containers  lined  with  lead  sheets,  is  poured  over  with  sulphuric  acid  at 
45°  B.,  and  then  the  steam  is  conducted  into  the  containers.     From  this 
a  breaking  up  and  loss  of  fat  in  the  meat  takes  place.     The  fat  is  skimmed 
off,  and  the  remaining  shiny  pulpy  mass  is  mixed  with  bonemeal,  lime 
phosphate,    etc.,    and    dried.     In   the    drying    quite    disagreeable    odors 
develop,  so  that  the  method  can  only  find  application  in  fertilizer  plants. 

Recently  Franke  has  recommended  treating  condemned  meat  with  a 
3  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  hydrate  (NaOH)  for  about  24  hours,  and 
afterward  to  boil  it  for  2-3  hours  with  steam  or  direct  fire,  until  the 
complete  breaking  up  of  the  soft  parts.  In  this  very  inexpensive  method, 
which  will  likely  find  more  practice  in  the  future,  is  obtained  fat,  glue 
broth,  and  alkaline  albumen.  A  saponification  of  the  fat  does  not  take 
place. 

(d)  The  dry  distillation  of  the  meat  is  practically  not  used  as  a  dis- 
posing method. 

(e)  A  burning  of  small  parts  may  be  undertaken  at  any  place  in  the 
heating  arrangements  of  the  household,  and  is  without  a  doubt  the  safest 
method  of  disposition.     Where  steam  boilers   are  present    even  larger 
parts  and  divided  carcasses  of  large  animals  may  be  burned.    This,  how- 
ever, is  not  economical,  and  is  also  of  a  disadvantage  for  the  walls  of  the 
boiler.     To  eliminate  the  last-mentioned  disadvantage,  various  kinds  of 
burning  stoves  were  constructed,  of  which  those  of  Kori  (page  179)  prove 
to  be  the  best. 

The  illustration,  Fig.  74,  represents  the  latest  construction  of  Kori's  burning 
stove,  type  III,  with  an  upper  slime  basin.  The  burning  stove  consists  of  a  mas- 
sively built  wall  body,  the  surfaces  of  which,  coming  in  contact  with  the  smoke 
gases  and  fire,  are  constructed  of  the  best  fire  bricks,  while  the  other  wall  work 
consists  of  brick  stones.  Besides  every  stove  receives  a  reinforcement  of  strong 
iron  U-rails,  which  are  fastened  together  by  strong  round  irons,  both  long  and 
crosswise.  The  operation  is  carried  out  in  the  following  way : 

The  solid  offal,  condemned  meats,  etc.,  are  thrown  without  consideration  of 
their  kind,  through  the  opening  E  T,  into  the  burning  chamber  V  R,  and  thence  to 


Disposition  of  the  Condemned  Meat 


179 


the  cast-iron  basin  Sch.  B  II,  and  from  here  on  the  slanting  surface  of  the  arching 
G  I,  G  II.  The  latter  consists  of  specially  constructed  perforated  fire  bricks,  which 
are  horizontally  continued  G  III.  The  coal  flame  produced  in  the  so-called  main 
fire-box  H  F  reaches  in  the  greatest  part  directly  to  the  burning  chamber  V  R, 
and  consumes  the  products  which  are  accumulated  there,  while  a  small  part  reaches 
through  the  canal  K,  directly  under  the  perforated  arching  G  II,  drying  and  igniting 
the  offal  lying  on  it. 

In  order  to  make  possible  the  burning  in  the  chamber  V  R  of  pulpy  and  thin 
liquid  material  without  any  other  addition,  and  without  disturbing  the  burning 
process  proper,  the  stove  is  extended  in  its  upper  part  into  another  small  chamber 
O  V  R,  into  which  a  flat  but  broad  basin  Sch.  BI  is  built.  This  basin  can  be 


Fig.  74.     Longitudinal  section  through  one  of  Kori's  burning  ovens,  type  III 


reached  from  the  opening  E  I,  lying  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  opening  for  receiv- 
ing the  materials,  and  in  order  to  make  this  accessible,  the  otherwise  sloped  back 
of  the  stove  is  made  with  a  platform  extension. 

The  flame  from  the  main  place  which  fills  the  burning  chamber  V  R,  leaves 
this  through  the  side  draft-opening  Z  II,  and  reaches  the  upper  burning  chamber 
O  V  R,  in  which  ij  passes  over  the  basin  Sch.  BI,  and  evaporates  the  fluids  con- 
tained therein,  thus  thickening  them.  If  this  is  (in  about  5  hours)  sufficiently 
accomplished,  then  with  the  hoisting  of  the  conical  valve  K  V  (in  the  floor  of  the 
basin  B),  the  thickened  content  flows  down  or  is  pushed  down  into  the  lower  burn- 
ing chamber  V  R,  where  its  complete  destruction  is  accomplished  in  a  short  time. 


180          Chap.  VI.     Decisions  of  the  Veterinary  Inspectors,  etc. 

The  residues  remaining  in  the  chamber  V  R  are  drawn  down  at  the  conclusion 
of  the  work,  with  the  aid  of  a  fire  hook,  to  the  grading  of  the  main  firing,  where  the 
complete  destruction  to  a  gray  ash  takes  place.  When  the  burning  process  is  well 
in  progress  't  is  advisable  to  restrict  the  direct  firing,  as  the  meat  masses  falling 
from  time  to  time  into  the  fire  replace  the  burning  material. 

Where  it  is  accessible,  the  burning  stove  is  connected  with  the  smokestack  of 
the  steam  boiler.  The  burning  stoves  of  Kori  give  good  satisfaction  everywhere, 
and  work  very  inexpensively. 

(f)  The  burying  of  meat  is  followed  principally  in  flat  countries, 
after  the  meat  has  been  previously  denatured  (page  170).  The  ditch 
should  be  laid  out  so  that  the  surface  of  the  meat  may  be  covered  with  a 
layer  of  earth  of  at  least  I  m.  thickness.  According  to  the  regulations  of 
the  imperial  meat-inspection  law,  trichinous  meat  is  not  allowed  to  be  dis- 
posed of  by  burying. 

[Condemned  carcasses  or  parts,  as  well  as  condemned  meat  and  its 
products,  and  the  offals  of  the  abattoir  are  rendered  in  the  United  States 
in  tanks,  also  called  digesters.  Such  tanks  are  usually  installed  in  abat- 
toirs, and  in  the  larger  establishments  a  large  number  of  such  tanks  are 
placed  in  the  so-called  tank-house  or  tank-room.  The  tanks,  which  receive 
the  condemned  meat,  are  sealed  by  a  Federal  employee,  who  also  super- 
vises the  tanking  of  the  condemned  material.  After  the  process  of  ren- 
dering is  concluded,  the  seal  is  broken  by  the  Federal  employee  and  the 
contents  of  the  tank  are  also  removed  under  his  supervision  (see  B.  A.  I. 
Order  150,  Regulation  16,  sections  1-3).  In  the  rendering  process  the 
regulations  prescribe  a  4O-lb.  steam  pressure,  producing  a  temperature  of 
288°  F.,  which  should  be  maintained  for  not  less  than  six  hours.  Before 
tanking  the  meat  is  always  denatured.  Through  the  rendering  process  all 
of  the  solids  are  thoroughly  disintegrated,  forming  a  pulpy  mass.  The 
grease  is  then  drawn  off  through  a  conveniently  placed  draw-off  valve, 
and  the  product  is  stored  and  shipped  with  the  word  "inedible''  marked  on 
the  containers.  After  the  fat  is  drawn  off,  the  residue  of  the  tank  is 
dumped  into  a  scrap  vat  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  grease  is 
next  skimmed  off.  which  is  placed  again  into  the  tank  for  the  next  cook- 
ing. Then  the  residue  is  placed  in  a  press,  usually  a  hydraulic  press  being 
employed,  where  it  is  separated  from  all  the  moisture  and  grease,  the 
dry  substance  being  then  prepared  for  fertilizers.  In  various  places  the 
tank  water,  which  contains  from  10-15  Per  cent-  solids,  is  utilized  for  the 
preparation  of  ammonia.  The  entire  rendering  process  in  the  tanks 
requires  from  8-10  hours.] 

3,    Inspection  of  Meat  Imported  from  Foreign  Countries 

The  decisions  of  the  inspectors,  and  the  treatment  of  the  meat 
imported  from  foreign  countries  after  inspection,  is  accomplished  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law. 


Disposition  of  the  Condemned  Meat  181 

The  decision  may  be  one  of  the  following : 

(a)  Passed  and  admitted  for  traffic  in  the  state; 

(b)  Condemned  and  rejected  from  importation; 

(c)  Condemned  with  harmless  disposal; 

(d)  Condemned  and  admitted  after  rendering  it  useless. 

These  decisions  may  extend  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  in  fresh 
meat,  to  the  entire  shipment,  to  single  carcasses,  to  single  affected  parts ; 
and  in  prepared  meat,  to  the  entire  shipment,  to  single  packages,  or  to 
single  pieces  of  meat. 

All  final  decisions  are  made  by  the  inspection  office  in  accordance 
with  the  opinion  of  the  veterinarian  assigned  for  the  inspection  to  whom 
the  results  of  the  chemical  examinations,  if  such  were  necessary,  should 
be  reported  in  writing. 

Regarding  the  further  treatment  of  condemned  meat,  the  police 
authorities  have  control. 

The  marking  of  the  meat  (page  159)  is  carried  out  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations,  with  colored  or  branding  stamps  on  the  meat  proper, 
and  on  the  containers  of  the  same. 

In  condemnations  the  meat  should  be  temporarily  retained,  and  pro- 
vided with  a  suitable  identification  mark.  Of  the  retention  immediate 
notice  should  be  given  to  the  disposal  authorities  of  the  customs  and  tax 
office,  as  well  as  to  the  police  authorities  designating  the  cause  of  the 
condemnation. 

The  harmless  disposal  of  condemned  imported  meat  has  to  be  carried 
out  under  the  same  conditions  as  for  native  meat. 

For  rendering  useless  foreign  meat  which  is  not  permitted  for  con- 
sumption, the  regulations  give  the  necessary  orders. 

Prohibition  for  importation  to  Germany  applies  at  the  present  time  to  dog 
meat,  prepared  horse  meat,  sausages,  and  other  mixtures  from  comminuted  horse 
meat,  meat  in  air-tight,  closed  boxes,  or  similar  containers;  pickled  meat,  if  the 
weight  of  a  single  piece  is  less  than  4  kg. ;  fresh  beef  and  veal  from  Belgium,  Russia, 
Roumania,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  America;  and  fresh  mutton,  goat  meat  and  pork  from 
Russia,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria. 


VII,    Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases  of 
Food^producing  Animals 

L    Noteworthy  Peculiarities  Within  Physiological  Limits 
A,     Fetuses  and  Dead'born  Animals 

Unscrupulous  butchers  sometimes  attempt  to  place  on  the  market  as 
normal  veal  or  to  otherwise  work  up  the  meat  of  almost  mature  fetuses 
or  dead-born  animals.  If  this  meat  is  worked  into  various  preparations  it 
can  only  be  found  out,  as  a  rule,  by  obtaining*  trustworthy  information, 
and  is  very  difficult  to  recognize  in  meat  products.  At  best,  the  high 
glycogen  content  (see  page  38)  of  meat  mixtures  might  furnish  a 
suspicion,  as  fetal  meat  contains,  relatively,  a  large  amount  of  this  carbo- 
hydrate. 

Post-mortem  Examination. — The  undressed  carcass  of  a  calf  fetus 
presents  the  following :  Soft  claws  with  untouched  convex  sole-pads ; 
remains  of  the  umbilical  cord  hanging  from  the  open  navel  ring ;  umbilical 
vessels  open,  containing  fluid  blood ;  sometimes  the  throat  is  cut  or  is  so 
stuck  as  to  simulate  slaughter  by  bleeding,  but  the  edges  of  the  wound  are 
not  infiltrated  by  blood.  The  dressed  carcass  shows  the  following : 

Gaping  condition  of  the  umbilical  vessels,  in  which  the  points  of  ori- 
gin of  the  arteries  from  the  internal  pudenda  artery  should  be  especially 
noticed;  open  urachus;  stomach  and  intestines  free  of  coagulated  milk; 
absence  of  milk  feces ;  lungs  atelectatic  if  they  were  not  blown  up  by  the 
butcher;  muscles  loose,  flabby,  and  watery;  so,  likewise,  is  the  undevel- 
oped fat  tissue,  especially  around  the  kidneys,  which  is  jelly-like ;  bone- 
marrow  is  red. 

Judgment. — As  the  consumption  of  fetal  meat  would  awaken  a  feel- 
ing of  repulsion  in  most  cases,  such  meat  should  be  considered  as  unfit 
for  human  food.  [B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  27.] 

B,     Immature  Animals 

Only  calves  which  are  too  young  come  into  consideration  here,  as 
young  pigs,  lambs,  and  kids  are  consumed  when  only  a  few  days  old. 
Calves  are  considered  mature  or  mature  for  slaughter  when  the  meat 
and  fat  have  attained  a  certain  development,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  only 
reached  within  8  to  10  days  after  birth.  However,  the  requirements  of 

182 


Emaciated  Animals  183 

the  public  relative  to  this  vary  greatly.  In  North  Germany,  especially  in 
Mecklenburg  and  Holstein,  calves  are  frequently  slaughtered  as  so-called 
"fasting  calves"  when  only  3  or  4  days  old,  and  even  shortly  after  birth ; 
but  they  are  allowed  to  become  much  older  in  South  Germany,  being  gen- 
erally 2  to  3  weeks  old.  Young  pigs  (roasting  pigs),  lambs  (Easter 
lambs)  and  kids  are  considered  mature  for  slaughter  at  an  age  of  about 
3  or  4  weeks. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  meat  of  immature  calves  is  very  moist, 
loose,  tender,  and  tears  easily;  can  be  perforated  with  the  fingers,  and  is 
grayish-red.  The  muscular  development,  as  a  whole,  is  but  slight,  which 
can  be  especially  noticed  on  the  leg  (upper  shank).  The  tissue,  which 
later  develops  as  the  fat  capsule  of  the  kidneys,  is  edematous,  dirty  yel- 
low, or  grayish-red,  tough,  and  intermixed  with  some  fat  lobules.  For 
characteristic  signs  of  the  age,  see  page  16. 

Judgment. — According  to  the  German  meat-inspection  regulations 
immature  or  insufficiently  developed  calves  should  be  declared  of  inferior 
quality. 

The  same  practice  should  be  followed  with  the  immature  meat  of 
other  animals. 

[In  the  United  States  the  regulations  provide  that  calves,  pigs,  kids, 
and  lambs  under  three  weeks  of  age  should  be  condemned.  [See  B.  A.  I. 
Order  150,  Regulation  13.  section  27.] 

C     Emaciated  Animals 

The  meaning  of  emaciation  must  not  be  confused  with  the  designa- 
tion leanness. 

Leanness  is  a  physiological  condition  with  perfect  health  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  which  after  slaughter  shows  no  disease,  or  only  insignificant 
indications  of  diseased  changes.  Leanness  can  be  observed  in  all  ani- 
mals which  are  in  the  stage  of  development ;  in  most  of  the  male  breeding 
animals,  in  cows  which  are  in  a  period  of  strong  lactation,  and  in  poorly 
nourished  animals,  or  in  those  not  properly  taken  care  of. 

The  meat  of  lean  animals  contains  a  small  amount  of  fat,  but  is 
otherwise  firm,  tense,  and  as  a  rule,  darker  in  color  than  normal,  and 
sometimes  the  connective  tissue  appears  strongly  developed,  which  causes 
toughness  of  the  meat. 

Emaciation  is  always  the  result  of  disease  or  old  age,  and  is  charac- 
terized by  a  retrogression  of  the  general  nutritive  condition  below  the 
normal.  In  well-marked  cases,  and  when  associated  with  a  pronounced 
loss  of  strength,  it  is  designated  as  cachexia.  Emaciation  may  develop 
especially  fast  in  febrile  diseases.  Occasionally  anemic  and  hydremic 
conditions  are  associated  with  emaciation. 


184  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — On  living  animals  are  noted  marked  projec- 
tions of  prominent  portions  of  the  bones,  sunken  muscles,  flabby  skin 
without  elasticity  and  laid  in  folds  with  much  desquamation,  scrubby, 
dull  hair,  tired  look  from  sunken  eyes,  and  decided  weakness  when  in 
motion,  with  relaxed  muscles  while  standing. 

Of  the  slaughtered  animals,  the  most  striking  appearance  is  shown 
in  emaciated  hogs,  as  these  animals  are  generally  slaughtered  in  a  fattened 
condition,  with  the  exception  of  boars  and  brood  sows,  unless  the  slaugh- 
ter is  necessitated  by  disease.  In  general,  in  all  emaciated  animals, 
absence  of  fat  in  the  subcutis  is  noted  in  the  first  place,  which  is  shrunken 
away  here  as  in  all  other  places  of  fat  deposit,  and  is  replaced  by  a  loose 
yellowish  or  reddish,  more  moist  and  even  jelly-like  tissue.  Advanced 
changes  are  naturally  dependent  upon  more  severe  cases,  which  are  espe- 
cially distinguished  by  pronounced  changes  of  the  kidney  fat.  The  mus- 
cular tissues  are  atrophied,  sunken,  loose,  pale,  more  moist  and  very  rich 
in  connective  tissue  elements.  Lymph  glands  and  lymphoid  tissue  are 
frequently  very  prominent  in  young  individuals,  while  the  same  may  be 
atrophied  in  older  subjects.  Bone-marrow  is,  in  advanced  cases,  poor 
in  fat,  red,  watery;  or,  in  older  animals,  even  slimy.  Sometimes  also, 
signs  of  atrophy  of  the  liver  and  spleen  are  noted. 

The  judging  of  the  meat  of  emaciated  animals  depends  on  the  cause 
of  emaciation  and  upon  its  degree.  In  marked  substantial  changes  of  the 
meat,  or  if  complete  emaciation  is  the  result  of  disease,  the  meat  must 
be  considered,  according  to  the  regulations,  as  unfit  for  human  con- 
sumption. The  same  applies  to  all  cases  in  which  the  existing  original 
disease  would  in  itself  exclude  utilization  of  the  meat.  In  all  other  cases, 
the  meat  represents  a  food  of  inferior  value,  according  to  the  regulations. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  24,  carcasses 
which  show  advanced  emaciation  should  be  condemned ;  the  association 
of  the  emaciation  with  a  disease  condition  would  naturally  exclude  the 
carcass  for  food  purposes.] 

D,    Abnormal  Odor  and  Taste  of  Meat 

1.    Sexual  Peculiarities 

Odor  and  taste  abnormalities  of  meat,  which  appear  in  connection 
with  sexual  activity,  manifest  themselves  in  the  most  pronounced  form 
in  boars  and  billy-goats,  and  next  in  order,  in  cryptorchid  boars. 

Findings. — In  old  boars  immediately  after  slaughter  there  is  always 
perceived  a  specific  odor  of  the  meat,  which  reminds  one  of  the  odor  of 
living  boars,  and  which  is  designated  as  a  urine-like  or  sexual  odor. 
Although  this  gradually  diminishes  through  cooling  the  meat,  it  becomes 
again  prominently  noticeable  as  soon  as  the  meat  is  warmed  by  boiling 
or  roasting. 


Abnormal  Odor  and  Taste  of  Meat  185 

Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  undertake  a  boiling  test  (page  137)  with  the  meat 
of  every  boar  24  hours  after  slaughter.  The  odor  is  most  perceptible  when  the 
boiled  meat  begins  to  cool.  In  doubtful  cases  the  odor  test  should  be  made  by  sev- 
eral persons.  The  characteristic  repulsive  odor  is  also  accompanied  by  a  simi- 
lar taste. 

Besides  the  disagreeable  odor  and  taste,  the  meat  of  boars  possesses 
also  a  peculiar  toughness,  and  the  skin  of  the  back,  shoulders,  neck,  and 
chest-walls  is  of  a  cartilaginous  hardness  (Schild). 

As  the  boar  odor  is  retained  for  some  time  after  castration,  such 
recently  castrated  animals  have  to  be  judged  the  same  as  those  not  cas- 
trated. (Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  so-called  stags). 

In  larger  abattoirs  where  the  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection  is  seldom 
carried  out  by  the  same  person,  it  is  advisable  to  practice  care  in  meat  inspection,  for 
the  butchers,  as  a  rule,  remove  the  testicles  with  a  portion  of  the  scrotum  in  dress- 
ing the  animal.  In  such  cases  the  cutting  away  of  the  skin  on  the  inside  of  the 
thigh  is  conspicuous,  which,  in  connection  with  other  sexual  peculiarities  (thickness 
of  the  skin,  penis,  or  its  roots  at  the  notch  of  the  pubis,  and  the  marked  development 
of  the  bulbo-cavernosus  muscle),  must  excite  suspicion. 

In  meat  of  cryptorchid  boars  the  sexual  odor  is  almost  invariably 
present  should  the  retained  testicles  possess  functional  activity.  At  any 
rate  it  is  advisable  to  condem  temporarily  every  cryptorchid  boar,  in 
order  to  undertake  a  boiling  test  with  the  cooled  meat. 

Meat  of  billy-goats  has  a  very  pronounced,  disagreeable  goatish 
odor  and  taste,  reminding  one  of  the  odor  of  the  living  animal.  The 
boiling  test  with  the  cooled  meat  is  decisive. 

Meat  of  specially  strong  full-fleshed  bulls  may,  according  to  Goltz, 
develop  an  exceptionally  noticeable  odor,  which  is  similar  to  evaporation 
from  the  skin  of  these  animals  in  life,  and  which  also  manifests  itself 
after  boiling. 

Before  being  chilled  the  meat  of  rams  has  frequently  a  slight  peculiar 
odor  which  is  quite  noticeable,  but  it  cannot  be  designated  as  repulsive. 
For  judgment  of  such  meat,  see  under  3. 

2,     Influences  of  Feeding 

As  a  result  of  extensive  feeding  with  fish,  which  sometimes  occurs 
near  the  sea  coasts,  the  meat,  and  especially  the  fat  of  hogs,  obtains  a 
fishy  odor  and  taste.  Extensive  feeding  of  garbage  (food  remnants  and 
offal  from  hotels,  institutions,  etc.)  gives  meat  an  insipid,  rancid  odor  and 
taste,  and  besides"  changes  the  consistence  of  the  meat  and  fat. 

After  feeding  fenugreek,  meat,  according  to  observations  made  in 
France,  takes  up  an  odor  and  taste  which  resembles  that  of  hog  manure, 
and  which  may  also  be  manifested  in  calves  given  milk  from  cows  fed 
with  this  plant. 


i86  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Oilman  observed  a  rancid  odor  and  a  soapy  taste  of  the  meat  in 
lambs  which  were  fed  with  beets  in  which  fermentation  had  begun  to 
develop. 

The  flesh  of  poultry  obtains  an  oily  flavor  from  being  fattened  with 
oil  seed,  oil  cake,  colza,  or  hempseed ;  and  a  fishy  odor  and  taste  from 
feeding  with  fish.  Turnips  are  supposed  to  produce  a  bitter  taste,  and 
pond  mussels  also  cause  a  very  disagreeable  flavor  to  the  meat  of  ducks. 

All  these  odor  and  taste  abnormalities  produced  by  the  influence  of 
food  are,  as  a  rule,  only  perceivable  after  heating  the  meat.  For  judg- 
ment of  the  meat,  see  under  3. 

3,     Absorption  of  Odors 

The  ingestion  and  administration  of  odor-producing  substances  in  the 
body  of  animals  may  also  cause  an  abnormal  odor  and  flavor  to  the  meat. 
These,  however,  are  not  always  strictly  inside  the  physiological  borders, 
but  they  may  be  here  mentioned.  Of  such  substances  which  may  be  taken 
up  accidentally,  or  which  may  be  administered  as  medicines,  and  especially 
come  into  consideration  in  emergency  slaughter,  to  which  attention  should 
be  called,  are :  Ether,  anise,  asafcetida,  baldrian,  bezin,  camphor,  carbolic 
acid,  chloroform,  petroleum,  tar,  and  fennel. 

It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  through  the  inhalations  of  carbolic 
acid,  chlorine,  ether,  and  chloroform  vapors  by  animals  their  meat  will 
also  absorb  the  corresponding  odor  and  taste  abnormalities.  (This  may 
occur  from  stable  and  railroad  stock-car  disinfection.) 

These  odors  may  manifest  themselves  to  a  high  degree  in  freshly 
slaughtered  animals,  but  they  appear  most  distinct  after  boiling  or  roast- 
ing the  meat. 

Judgment. — Meat  which  possesses  a  repulsive  odor  or  flavor  in  a  high 
degree  is,  according  to  the  regulations,  unfit  for  human  food ;  that  having 
a  fishy  odor  or  taste,  and  all  such  meats  which  possess  deviations  of  these 
peculiarities  to  a  moderate  degree,  should  be  declared  of  an  inferior  qual- 
ity. [According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  20,  car- 
casses giving  off  urine  or  sexual  odors  should  be  condemned.] 

Regarding  deviations  in  the  odor  and  taste  of  meat  of  diseased  ani- 
mals, and  those  with  intestinal  parasites,  see  Chap.  VII,  Sections  3-7. 
Regarding  post-mortem  odor  abnormalities,  see  Chap.  VIII. 

E,      Animals  in  Advanced  Pregnancy 

The  almost  general  opinion  which  exists  among  butchers  that  meat  of 
animals  in  advanced  pregnancy  is  of  inferior  quality  because  it  contains 
more  moisture,  has  a  looser  consistence,  and  therefore  does  not  keep  so 
well,  and  is  not  as  suitable  for  the  preparation  of  sausage,  requiring  keep- 


Abnormal  Color  of  the  Fat  187 

ing  qualities,  cannot  be  in  general  substantiated.  Although  there  are 
cases  occuring  in  which  the  meat,  and  especially  of  the  hindquarters,  pos- 
sesses the  above-mentioned  peculiarities,  yet  these  are  restricted  princi- 
pally to  sows  in  the  last  stage  of  pregnancy. 

The  judgment  can,  therefore,  be  applied  only  from  case  to  case,  and 
has  to  be  directed  in  accordance  with  carefully  observed  objective  finding 
on  the  animal  itself. 

[In  accordance  with  Regulation  13,  section  26  of  B.  A.  I.  Order  150, 
carcasses  of  animals  in  the  last  stages  of  pregnancy  (showing  signs  of 
parturition),  also  those  which  have  given  birth  to  young  within  10  days 
are  passed  for  lard  or  tallow,  provided  there  are  no  signs  of  sep- 
tic infection.] 

If  in  the  purchase  absence  of  pregnancy  was  agreed  upon,  then  the  buyer  is 
entitled  to  have  indemnification  claims  on  the  seller.  For  this  purpose,  an  author- 
ized certification  of  the  meat  inspector  is  required,  specifying  the  exact  weight  of 
the  pregnant  uterus,  and  to  deduct  from  the  same  the  weight  of  a  normal  uterus, 
which,  in  the  average,  can  be  calculated  in  cattle  as  il/2  kg.;  in  hogs,  0.75  kg.,  and 
in  sheep,  60  g. 

F,     Abnormal  Color  of  the  Fat 

An  intense  yellow  coloring  of  the  fat  appears  in  old  cows  as  a  sign 
of  advanced  age.  Likewise  a  change  in  color  of  fat  occurs,  as  a  rule, 
through  certain  influences  of  feeding.  Thus  cattle  which  were  princi- 
pally fattened  on  the  pasture  possess  an  intensely  yellow  fat.  Also  in  hogs 
which  were  extensively  fed  on  corn  or  cotton-seed  meal  may  be  observed 
a  milder  yellow  coloration  of  the  fat.  A  more  saturated,  dirty  yellow 
color  is  observed  in  the  fat  of  calves  which  were  nourished  on  cotton-seed 
meal  or  acorn  cake.  If  hogs  are  fed  on  fish  or  garbage  the  fat  manifests 
a  blackish-gray  or  grayish-yellow  coloration. 

According  to  Porcher,  the  yellow  coloration  resulting  from  feeding  is 
dependent  upon  a  pigment,  which  belongs  to  the  group  of  "lutein,"  and 
which  is  distinguishable  from  bilirubin  through  the  sum  total  of  its 
characteristics. 

Lutein  is  soluble  in  chloroform,  amylalcohol,  common  alcohol,  benzin,  turpentine 
and  ether ;  bilirubin  on  the  other  hand,  is  soluble  only  in  the  two  first  named  sub- 
stances. Lutein  has  two  absorption  stripes  (green-blue,  and  blue)  ;  bilirubin  has 
none.  Solutions  of  bilirubin  in  CHCI3,  shaken  with  a  small  quantity  of  soda 
solution,  lose  the  pigment  rapidly,  while  the  lutein  does  not  Lutein  solutions 
exposed  to  the  air  are  soon  discolored  in  contradistinction  to  that  of  bilirubin ;  and 
lutein  solutions  do  not  give  the  Ehrlich  reaction. 

Judgment. — Meat  and  fat  of  so-called  pasture  or  grass-fed  cattle 
should  not  be  condemned.  The  same  applies  to  calves,  with  the  above- 
mentioned  yellow7  coloration  of  fat.  Otherwise,  moderate  deviations  rela- 


1 88  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

tive  to  color,  render  the  meat  of  a  lesser  quality.  In  more  marked  changes 
of  color  the  meat,  as  a  rule,  shows  also  abnormalities  of  odor  and  taste, 
and  should  be  judged  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  regulations.  To 
mistake  the  above  discolorations  for  jaundice  cannot  occur  to  a  careful 
inspector,  as  in  the  yellow  coloration  resulting  from  feeding  the  fat  only 
shows  the  yellow  color,  while  in  icteric  animals  all  connective  tissue  sub- 
stances and  particularly  the  serous  membranes,  manifest  a  yellow  colora- 
tion. Relative  to  further  influences  on  the  meat  of  hogs  from  feeding 
upon  fish  and  garbage,  see  page  185. 

[Carcasses  showing  an  intense  yellow  or  greenish-yellow  discolora- 
tion after  proper  cooling  should  be  condemned.  (B.  A.  I.  Order  150, 
Regulation  13,  section  19.)] 

G,     Incompletely  Bled  Animals 

Since  in  the  slaughtering  of  animals  it  is  aimed  to  abstract  from  the 
body  as  much  blood  as  possible,  insufficient  bleeding  is  always  somewhat 
unusual  and  conspicuous. 

Lesions. — There  is  observed  an  unusual  blood  content  of  the  viscera, 
especially  of  the  liver  and  intestinal  veins,  marked  fullness  of  the  ventricles 
of  the  heart,  the  subcutaneous  veins  and  those  of  the  muscles,  which  also 
contain  more  moisture.  The  spongy  parts  of  the  bones  are  richer  in  blood, 
as  is  also  the  bone-marrow  under  certain  conditions.  In  accordance  with 
the  degree  of  bleeding,  the  increased  blood  content  is  more  or  less  marked. 

In  judgment  it  is  first  of  all  necessary  to  decide  the  cause  of  insuffi- 
cient bleeding.  If  it  was  the  result  of  disease,  then  the  nature  of  the  dis- 
ease is  the  standard  for  decision. 

If  insufficient  bleeding  results  as  a  consequence  of  long  transporta- 
tion, overexertion,  overfeeding,  heart  stroke,  lightning  stroke  violent  brain 
or  spinal-cord  injuries,  sudden  internal  bleedings,  etc.,  the  meat  is,  as  a 
rule,  to  be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  But  there  may  also  be  changes 
present  which  render  the  meat  entirely  unfit  for  use. 

[Carcasses  which  show  indications  of  incomplete  bleeding,  which  is 
invariably  art  evidence  of  a  serious  condition  of  the  animal  before  slaugh- 
ter, should  be  condemned.] 

H,     Exhausted  Animals 

Although  meat  of  exhausted  animals  will  most  frequently  have  to  be  judged  in 
accordance  with  the  paragraph  above  because  of  insufficient  bleeding,  still  there  are 
instances  in  which  the  meat  will  contain  some  other  peculiarities,  as  a  result  of 
exhaustion.  According  to  Picker,  the  exhaustion  of  animals  facilitates  considerably 


Dead   Animals  189 

the  penetration  of  bacteria  through  the  intestinal  walls.  Bacillus  coli  was  demon- 
strated in  the  kidneys,  liver,  and  mesenteric  glands  of  exhausted  dogs,  and  B.  proteus 
in  the  liver.  It  produces  a  similar  condition  as  in  the  dying  animal.  This  also 
explains  the  fact  that  meat  of  exhausted  food  animals  spoils  soon  after  slaughter, 
while  it  will  keep  well  if  animals  are  rested  for  several  days  before  being  put  to 
death. 

Lesions. — The  color  of  the  meat  is,  according  to  Villain,  brown  or  dark  red,  fre- 
quently even  blackish ;  the  odor  is  repulsive,  slightly  sour,  sometimes  similar  to  ether ; 
the  muscle-fibers  are  dry  in  cutting;  no  muscle  juice  oozes  out,  and  the  meat  cuts  like 
rubber;  hemorrhages  and  ruptures  occur  in  the  muscle-fiber;  the  spongy  part  of  the 
bones  is  dark,  the  bone-marrow  hemorrhagic,  and  the  lymph  glands  injected. 
Finally  the  muscles  are  supposed  to  contain  10  times  the  quantity  of  kreatin,  as  in 
their  normal  condition. 

Judgment. — As  a  rule,  the  meat  of  exhausted  animals  is  unfit  for  human  food, 
on  account  of  the  pronounced  repulsive  changes. 


I,     Dead  Animals 

It  sometimes  happens  that  animals  are  slaughtered  after  they  have 
died,  and  that  manipulations  are  undertaken  on  dead  animals  to  give  the 
appearances  of  slaughter  ("cold  slaughter").  Accordingly  the  meat  of 
dead  animals  sometimes  appears  also  for  inspection. 

Lesions. — Absence  of  signs  of  a  regular  slaughter;  complete  fulness 
of  all  the  venous  vessels,  especially  noticeable  in  the  liver,  intestines,  and 
subcutis ;  a  varied  content  of  blood  in  the  lungs  and  kidneys  (hypostasis)  ; 
marked  fluid  content  of  the  subcutis  and  muscles. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  dead  animals  is,  according  to  the  regula- 
tions, unfit  for  human  food. 

Whether  such  meat  is  objectively  unwholesome  depends  on  the  cause 
(disease,  accident)  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  the  animal.  Further- 
more, meat  of  dead  animals  undergoes  putrefactive  changes  very  soon 
(see  under  H),  and  as  a  result  may  be  rendered  unwholesome. 

The  meat  of  animals  which  nearly  die  from  injury,  stroke  of  light- 
ning, cardiac,  or  cerebral  apoplexy,  suffocation,  and  from  other  causes 
may,  in  such  cases,  receive  a  more  liberal  decision  if  some  blood  could 
be  extracted  from  the  body  and  the  dressing  were  hastily  performed  (see 
above  under  G). 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  sections  29  and  30, 
animals  which  die  in  the  abattoirs  and  those  in  a  dying  condition  should 
be  condemned;  the  same  provision  is  made  for  suffocated  animals. 
Besides  the  regulations  also  specify  that  the  carcasses  of  such  animals, 
when  conveyed  to  the  tank-room,  should  not  pass  through  the  compart- 
ments in  which  food  products  are  prepared.] 


190  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

2,     General  Pathological  Changes  as  Related  to  Meat 

Inspection 

A,    Disturbances  of  the  Circulation 

1.     Hyperemia 

An  increased  quantity  of  blood  in  various  parts  of  the  animal  body 
may  occur  as  functional,  active,  passive,  collateral  and  inflammatory 
hyperemia,  the  recognition  of  which  causes  no  difficulty.  However,  it 
should  be  considered  that  all  changes  in  organs  caused  by  the  quantity  of 
blood  in  them  become,  with  rare  exceptions  (local  active  hyperemia), 
more  or  less  indistinct  after  the  bleeding  of  slaughtered  animals ;  on  the 
other  hand,  after  natural  death  or  insufficient  bleeding,  hyperemia  is  so 
pronounced  it  may  serve  as  a  sign  for  recognition  of  these  last-named 
conditions.  For  judgment,  see  page  192. 

Hyperemia  should  not  be  confused  with  hemorrhagic  imbibitions,  which  do 
not  represent  an  engorgement  of  blood-vessels,  but  consist  of  a  red  coloration  of 
tissues  by  the  blood-coloring  matter,  dissolved  by  blood  serum  (see  septicemia  and 
putrefaction). 

Post-mortem  Spots  (cadaver  spots,  livid  areas,  post-mortem  hypostasis), 
are  blue  discolorations  of  the  skin  of  dead  animals  which  result  from  the  tendency 
of  blood  after  death  to  sink  to  the  dependent  tissues,  and  finally  filling  the  capillaries. 

2,     Anemia 

This  condition,  which  is  characterized  by  a  local  deficiency  of  blood 
(ischemia)  in  the  respective  parts,  can  also  be  readily  detected;  and  in 
this  connection,  the  influence  of  stronger  or  lesser  bleeding  should  always 
be  taken  under  consideration.  For  disposition  of  such  carcasses,  see 
page  192. 

Regarding  general  anemia,  see  Chap.  VII,  4. 

3,    Hemorrhages 

In  the  occurrence  of  hemorrhages,  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish 
between  the  escape  of  blood  into  the  tissues  due  to  tearing  of  the  heart 
muscle  or  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  [hemorrhages  by  rupture  (per 
rhexis)  resulting  from  traumatisms,  greatly  increased  blood-pressure  or 
nutritive  disturbances  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels],  and  between 
hemorrhages  without  any  separation  of  the  continuity  of  the  blood-vessel, 
from  which  blood  corpuscles  and  serum  escape  by  diapedesis,  through 
dilated  pores  of  the  walls  of  the  vessels.  In  the  first  instance,  larger  hem- 


Disturbances  of  the  Circulation 


191 


orrhages  and  blood  effusions  are  produced  (extravasations,  sugillations, 
hemorrhagic  areas,  infarcts,  hematomas)  ;  in  the  last  instance  punctiform, 
circumscribed  hemorrhages  are  found  (petechia  and  ecchymosis). 

The  consistency  of  the  hemorrhages  is  not  affected  by  the  animal 
being  bled  to  death. 

A 


Fig.  75.  A,  cells  containing  amorphous  blood  pigment;  a,  with  a  few  larger 
broken  down  products ;  b,  and  c,  with  numerous  small  degenerated  products  of  red 
blood  corpuscles  B,  rhomboid  crystals  and  needles  of  hematoidin.  x  300  diame- 
ters (after  Ziegler). 

For  determination  of  the  time  of  the  occurrence  of  hemorrhages,  Driick's  publi- 
cations give  the  following  information: 

First  the  red  blood  corpuscles  swell  and  commence  to  clear.  As  a  result  of  the 
latter  they  are  distinguished  after  two  days  by  the  appearance  of  paleness,  becom- 
ing almost  completely  transparent;  while  as  a  result  of  the  swelling,  the  bi-concave 
blood  plates  gradually  adopt  a  round  form.  From  the  fifth  day,  shrinking  takes 


<* 


c> 


Fig.  76.  Cells  containing  hemosiderin  and  hematoidin  from  an  old  hemorrhagic 
area  in  the  brain  (alk.  Berlin  blue  reaction)  ;  a,  cells  with  hemosiderin;  b,  cells  with 
hematoidin;  c,  fat  granule  cells  which  became  cleared;  d,  new  formed  connective 
tissue,  x  300  diameters  (after  Ziegler). 


place,  with  formation  of  very  fine  crenations  on  the  periphery  of  the  blood  corpus- 
cles The  increased  shrinking  changes  the  blood  corpuscles  up  to  the  6th  to  8th 
day  into  either  irregular  polygonal  or  star-shaped  formations,  or  into  key  or  cup- 
shaped  bodies.  The  hemoglobin  penetrates  the  surrounding  tissues  uniformly,  until 


192  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

the  6th  day,  to  which  it  confers  a  brownish  tint.  At  the  seventh  day  hemosiderin 
(Fig.  76)  develops,  which  contains  iron,  and  soon  diffuses  through  the  entire  tissue. 
However,  from  the  I2th  day  on  it  is  exclusively  found  in  the  contracted  cells. 
•From  the  I2th  day  on  the  pigment  which  is  at  first  in  solution  in  the  white  blood 
corpuscles  becomes  granular ;  and  from  the  i8th  to  the  25th  day  't  gradually  breaks 
up  into  finer  and  finer  granules.  At  the  same  time  the  white  corpuscles  containing 
granules  also  break  up ;  so  that  from  the  i8th  day  the  first  free  pigment-granules 
may  be  noticed  in  the  tissues.  In  the  latter,  about  the  6oth  day,  there  is  a  very  fine 
granular  pigment  exclusively  present,  which  is  free  of  iron.  Besides,  under  certain 
but  entirely  unknown  conditions,  coloring  matter  crystals  may  form  (hematoidin, 
a  derivative  of  hemoglobin,  containing  iron,  Fig.  75). 
For  judgment,  see  under  5. 

4,    Translations 

The  increased  escape  of  fluid  constituents  of  the  blood  through  the 
uninjured  walls  of  the  vessels,  which  results  inside  of  the  tissue  in  edema 
(anasarca,  hyposarca)  and  in  the  body  cavities  in  effusions,  is  either  the 
result  of  changes  of  the  blood  (hydremia)  or  of  disturbances  of  circula- 
tion, the  recognition  of  which  is  very  difficult,  although  the  causes  are 
quite  significant.  While  edemas  are,  as  a  rule,  not  changed  by  slaughter, 
observation  of  suspected  transudation  in  the  large  body  cavities  requires 
the  personal  presence  of  the  inspector  at  the  opening  of  the  carcass. 

For  judgment,  see  under  5. 

5,     Thrombosis  and  Embolism 

Obstructions  of  blood  vessels,  as  a  rule,  are  recognized  in  meat 
inspection  only  when  the  obstruction  affects  large  blood  vessels,  or 
thrombosis  is  present  in  such  organs  in  which  a  hemorrhagic  infarct 
develops.  The  infarct  usually  possesses  a  wedge-shaped  cross-section, 
and  is  chiefly  conspicuous  by  its  dark  red  color,  which  gradually  turns  to 
?  dim  gray  and  dull  yellow.  Hemorrhagic  infarcts  are  principally  found 
in  organs  with  terminal  arteries  (spleen,  kidneys,  brain,  retina),  but  also 
in  the  lungs.  If  the  region  of  the  obstructing  blood-vessels  does  not  pos- 
sess anastamosis  with  other  vessels  from  which  it  may  receive  blood,  that 
region  remains  free  of  blood,  and  dies  off.  It  will  develop  an  anemic, 
pale  infarct,  which  may  be  principally  observed  in  the  heart,  spleen,  and 
kidneys.  Later  on  it  results  in  connective  tissue  degeneration,  and  cica- 
trization of  the  region  cut  off  from  the  arterial  blood  supply. 

In  the  judgment  of  meat  which  comes  under  1-5  of  the  above - 
described  local  circulatory  disturbances,  the  extent  and  cause  of  condi- 
tions must  be  considered,  and  whether  these  changes  are  purely  local  and 
appearing  independently,  or  whether  they  are  the  accompanying  manifes- 
tations of  a  general  affection. 


Inflammations  193 

In  purely  local  changes,  as  a  rule,  only  the  diseased  part  of  the  body, 
or  the  entire  affected  organ  is  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food  on 
account  of  its  altered  consistency. 

\Yhen  circulatory  disturbances  are  manifested  in  numerous  parts  of 
the  body  it  is  usually  indicative  of  a  general  affection  and  should  be 
judged  accordingly,  but  when  the  circulatory  disturbances  are  not  sympto- 
matic of  a  generally  diseased  condition  and  yet  appear  extensively 
throughout  the  body,  their  significance  should  be  considered  under  Organic 
Diseases  (page  201). 

B,     Inflammations 

For  the  purposes  of  meat  inspection  it  appears  most  appropriate  to 
consider  various  inflammations  in  accordance  with  the  character  of  their 
exuda'tes.  Accordingly  the  following  forms  are  distinguished : 

1.  Serous  and  catarrhal  inflammation. 

2.  Fibrinous  inflammation. 

3.  Suppurative  and  ulcerative  inflammation. 

4.  Hemorrhagic  inflammation. 

5.  Croupous  inflammation. 

6.  Diphtheritic  inflammation. 
/.  Gangrenous  inflammation. 
8.  Productive  inflammation. 

There  also  belong  the  variously  related  and  mixed  forms  (sero-fibrinous  inflam- 
mation, croupous-diphtheritic  inflammation,  etc.)  ;  also  the  parenchymatous  and 
interstitial  inflammations  of  glandular  organs,  which,  from  a  practical  standpoint, 
it  is  advisable  to  keep  apart. 

Regarding  lesions  found  in  various  forms  of  inflammations,  nothing  need  be 
said  here,  as  their  manifestations  should  be  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  studied 
pathology.  For  the  same  reason  the  cause  of  inflammations  will  not  be  treated  here. 

In  judging  the  meat  of  affected  carcasses  it  is  necessary  to  separate 
the  purely  local  forms  of  inflammation  from  those  which  appear  as  accom- 
panying symptoms  of  general  disease.  The  purely  local  forms  of  inflam- 
mations are  frequently  the  results  of  traumatic  lesions  and  are  more  or 
less  confined  to  certain  areas ;  accordingly  only  the  inflamed  parts,  or  at 
most  the  affected  organ,  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food  on 
account  of  conspicuous  changes.  This  is  frequently  unnecessary  in 
serous  and  catarrhal  inflammations  of  the  mucous  membranes,  as  the  dis- 
eased organs  are  either  not  used  in  any  form  for  human  food,  or  in  further 
manipulations  of  them  ( intestines,  air-passages,  urinary  and  sexual  pas- 
sages) the  diseased  mucous  membranes  are  removed.  That  local  inflam- 
mations may  be  the  starting  point  of  infectious  processes  is  known  ;  and 
therefore  when  suspicious  of  such  cases,  it  is  advisable  to  be  careful  in 
making  disposition  of  the  meat. 
14 


194  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Those  general  affections  which  manifest  accompanying  symptoms  of 
inflammation  are  usually  of  an  infectious  nature  (principally  the  more 
severe  hemorrhagic,  croupous,  diphtheritic,  and  parenchymatous  inflam- 
mations). The  judgment  of  such  carcasses  depends  on  the  original  disease 
present. 

G     Retrogressive  Nutritive  Disturbances  and  Infiltration  of  the  Tissues 

1.     Atrophy 

In  meat  inspection  the  condition  known  as  atrophy  is  not  of  special 
importance,  and  comes  only  into  consideration  when  fat,  muscular  tissues 
and  certain  glands,  especially  the  liver,  are  affected.  While  the  atrophy  of 
the  glandular  organs  is  easily  recognized  by  the  decrease  in  size  and  the 
firmer  consistency  nevertheless  the  atrophy  of  the  muscles  and  of  the  fat 
tissues  is,  as  a  rule,  only  noticed  in  an  advanced  state.  As  a  result  of 
atrophy  of  parenchyma  cells,  the  connective  tissue  elements  stand  out  more 
prominently  in  the  atrophied  organ ;  and  this  condition  is  sometimes 
wrongly  considered  as  an  increase  of  connective  tissue  (induration). 

For  judgment,  see  page  199. 

2.     Cloudy  Swelling 

Cloudy  swelling  (parenchymatous  degeneration,  granular  infiltra- 
tion) is  of  the  highest  diagnostic  importance  in  meat  inspection.  It  occurs 
in  large  glandular  organs  and  in  muscles,  and  is  characterized  by  a  slight 
enlargement  of  the  organ,  with  a  cloudy,  dull,  lusterless  appearance,  espe- 
cially of  the  cut  surface,  together  with  the  projection  and  diffused  appear- 
ance of  the  latter.  The  normal  color  is  changed  into  grayish  color  tints, 
the  lightness  of  which  corresponds  with  the  severity  of  the  changes.  The 
consistence  of  the  organ  is  friable,  which  as  a  result  of 
a  diminution  in  blood  and  moisture  may  increase  to 
a  brittleness.  In  a  pronounced  case  the  organs  ap- 
pear as  if  they  were  boiled. 

Cloudy  swelling  is  to  be  considered  as  a  disorgani- 
zation of  the  protoplasm,  which  ensues  under  the  ab- 
swelHng  of  ?iver  sorption  of  fluids,  and  leads  to  a  partial  separation  of 
cells  as  a  result  a  the  solid  and  fluid  parts  (Ziegler). 
diameters  (aXft3fr  Microscopical  examination  reveals  an  accumula- 
Ziegler).  tion  of  fine,  slightly  refractory  granules  in  the  proto- 

plasma  of  the  swollen  cells,  the  connection  of  which 
appears  also  somewhat  loosened.  The  albuminous  granules,  which  are 
insoluble  in  alkalies  and  ether,  but  are  soluble  in  acetic  acid,  cause  the  cells 
to  have  a  cloudy  appearance,  as  if  they  had  been  covered  with  dust 


Retrogressive  Nutritive  Disturbances   etc.  195 

(Fig.  77).    The  nucleus  may  also  be  swollen  and  its  structure  degenerated. 

Cloudy  swelling  is  frequently  the  precursor  of  degeneration  (see 
below). 

For  judgment,  see  page  199. 

3.     Fatty  Infiltration 

Fatty  infiltration,  which  frequently  occurs  in  various  organs  of  fat- 
tened food  animals,  does  not  represent  in  meat  inspection  an  abnormal 
condition,  and  is  here  only  mentioned  in  contradistinction  to  fatty  degen- 
eration, which  is  described  below. 

By  physiological  infiltration  is  understood  a  deposit  of  fat  globules 
in  the  cells,  the  normal  structure  of  which  remains  otherwise  intact.  The 
fat  enters  the  cells,  according  to  Rievel  in  dissolved  form,  is  split  up,  and 
is  then  again  synthetically  built  up  within  the  cells  (granular  fat  synthesis 
of  Arnold).  This  condition  appears  principally  in  those  tissues  which  nor- 
mally serve  for  storing  fat  (connective  tissue). 

It  also  occurs  to  a  great  extent  in  primitive  muscular  fibers,  in  various 
epithelial  cells,  and  especially  in  liver  cells.  To  this  form  of  infiltration 
belongs  the  so-called  fatty  liver  in  highly  fattened  animals,  in  advanced 
pregnancy,  in  sucking  animals,  and  in  diseased  conditions  where  there  is 
an  insufficient  oxidation  of  blood. 

Fatty  liver  is  characterized  by  its  lighter  yellowish-brown  color, 
slight  swelling,  rounded  edges,  cloudiness,  fatty  luster  of  the  cut  surface, 
but  with  no  structural  abnormalities  (the  lobules  are  not  obliterated).  The 
consistence  is  soft.  Microscopically,  there  is  found  a  rich  accumulation 
of  fat  in  the  interlobular  tissue,  and  the  swollen  fat  globules  have  a  ten- 
dency to  run  together,  to  form  large  droplets  in  the  cell  protoplasm 
(Fig.  78  a,  b). 

For  judgment,  see  page  199. 

4.     Fatty  Degeneration 

Fatty  degeneration,  which,  according  to  Rievel,  would  be  more  cor- 
rectly designated  as  pathological  or  degenerative  fatty  infiltration,  repre- 
sents occasionally  an  advanced  development  of  cloudy  swelling;  but  it 
may  also  occur  without  this  preliminary  process.  It  affects  both  epithelial 
cells  (liver  and  kidney),  connective  tissue  substances  (heart  and  skeleton 
muscles,  connective  tissue  fibers),  and  consists  in  an  accumulation  of  fat 
in  the  cells,  the  structure  of  which  is  more  or  less  injured.  Fat,  however, 


196 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


does  not  originate  from  breaking  up  of  the  cell  albumen,  as  it  was  for- 
merly supposed ;  but  it  is  conveyed  as  such  to  the  cells.  The  entire  pro- 
cedure might  be  traced  to  respiratory  causes. 

Fatty  degenerated  organs  are  characterized  by  a  yellowish  color, 
which  may  be  uniform  or  spotted,  with  slight  fatty  luster  of  the  cut  sur- 
face, obliterated  structural  relations,  and  flabby,  doughy  consistence.  A 
swelling  of  organs  in  the  majority  of  cases  does  not  take  place.  Micro- 
scopically, there  is  found  a  disintegration  of  cell  connections,  and  some- 
times crumbling  and  breaking  down  of  the  cell  into  a'  fatty  detritus,  which 


Fig.  78.  Liver  cells  contain- 
ing fat;  a  and  b,  fatty  infil- 
tration; c,  d,  c,  fatty  degener- 
ation; x  400  diameters  (after 
Ziegler). 


Fig.  79.  Fatty  degene- 
ration of  the  heart  muscle. 
x  350  diameters  (after 
Ziegler). 


consists  of  granules  and  fat  globules  (Figs.  78  and  79).  The  latter 
remain  unchanged  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid ;  while  they  are  dissolved 
by  ether  and  chloroform. 

For  judgment  see  page  199. 

5,     Various  Degenerations 

Mucoid  degeneration  (mucin-metamorphosis)  is  rarely  observed  in  food  ani- 
mals. It  affects  fat  tissues,  which  are  transformed  into  a  yellow  transparent  jelly- 
like  mass  (Ostertag). 

Hyaline  or  glassy  degeneration  of  the  muscles  also  occurs  infrequently,  and  is 
always  associated  with  severe  general  affections.  It  was  observed  by  Frattner  to 
affect  the  heart  muscles  in  the  malignant  form  of  foot  and  mouth  disease. 

Amyloid  degenerations  have  been  observed  in  various  organs,  especially 
in  fowls. 

For  judgment,  see  page  199. 

6,     Necrosis,     Caseation.     Gangrene, 

The  easily  recognized  necrosis  or  necrobiosis  of  the  organs  or  tissues 
occurs  principally  as  a  local  affection,  and  would  accordingly  be  of  little 


Retrogressive  Nutritive  Disturbances,  etc. 


197 


importance  in  meat  inspection  if  the  necrotic  parts  did  not  readily  become 
centers  for  colonization  and  multiplication  of  saprophitic  and  pathogenic 
micro-organisms.  In  such  cases  in  the  surrounding  tissues  of  the  necrotic 
parts  an  inflammation  alwavs  develops,  and  not  infrequently  in  connec- 
tion with  this  a  uniformly  diseased 
condition  follows  in  the  affected 
animal.  - 

Caseation  is  designated  as  necro- 
biotic  coagulation  necrosis,  in  which 
the  broken-down  tissue  has  a  caseous 
appearance.  Tuberculous  change  of 
the  tissues  is  the  typical  form.  In  cel- 
lular tissue,  caseation  may  be  fre- 
quently observed  between  the  cells  as 
a  ''fibrinoid  mass,"  or  even  as  typical 
thready  fibrin  (Fig.  80). 

Gangrene,  which  results  from  ne- 
crosis as  a  result  of  breaking  down 
of  diseased  tissues  through  the  influ- 
ence of  saprophytes,  is  characterized 
by  a  softening  of  those  tissues  un- 
der the  formation  of  gases,  with  an 
offensive  odor.  Therefore  everything  said  about  necrosis,  and  especially 
concerning  the  danger  of  a  resulting  uniform  affection,  also  applies  to 
gangrene ;  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  development  of  putrid  intoxications  or 
spetic  infections  is  quite  frequent  in  connection  writh  gangrene.  (See 
Chap.  VII,  6.) 

For  judgment,   see  page   199. 


Fig.  80.  -Tissue  from  a  partially 
caseated  tubercular  focus  with  bacilli 
(alk.  fuchsin-aniline  blue)  ;  a,  granu- 
lar, a',  cheesy  masses;  b.  fibrous  cel- 
lular tissue;  c,  partly  necrotic  giant 
cells  with  bacilli;  d.  bacilli  in  the 
cellular  tissue ;  c,  bacilli  in  necrotic 
tissue ;  f,  bacilli  enclosed  in  cells,  x 
200  diameters  (after  Ziegler). 


7.     Suppuration 

While  suppuration  is  a  product  of  inflammation  and  as  such  has  been 
already  mentioned,  it  deserves  special  attention  as  a  frequently  occurring 
disintegration  of  tissues  in  food  animals 

Although  suppuration  may  be  produced  by  chemical  substances 
(mercury,  turpentine,  petroleum,  creolin.  digitoxin,  bacterial  proteins), 
still,  from  a  practical  standpoint,  all  cases  of  suppuration  must  be  con- 
sidered of  infectious  origin,  occasioned  by  various  pus-forming  organisms 
(staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  albus  and  citreus ;  streptococcus  pyog- 
enes :  str.  equi :  bacillus  pyogenes  suis ;  bac.  pyogenes  bovis ;  bac. 


198  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

pyogenes  foetidus ;  bac.  liquifaciens  bovis ;  bac.  pyelonephriditis,  and 
others).  Also  various  other  bacilli  and  bacteria  (for  instance,  actino- 
myces  fungi;  botryococcus  ascoformans)  may  act  as  pus-producing 
organisms. 

Regarding  the  origin  of  suppurations,  Kreutzer  expresses  himself  as  follows: 
"Pus-forming  bacteria  irritate  the  tissues  by  their  large  masses,  and  also  through 
proteins  contained  in  their  bodies  attract  leucocytes  (chemotactic  action)  and  pro 
duce  by  this  cell-infiltration  a  true  inflammation.  Toxins  and  ferments  produced 
by  pus-forming  bacteria  cause  a  breaking  down  of  leucocytes,  through  a  chemi- 
cal action,  which  makes  their  return  migration  impossible — disturb  and  prevent 
fibrin-formation,  and  peptonize  all  albumen  of  the  tissues."  In  the  horse  the  most 
frequent  pus-producing  organism,  according  to  Kreutzer,  is  staph.  pyogenes  aureus 
and  albus ;  and  in  cattle  streptococcus  pyogenes  predominates ;  but  in  most  in- 
stances various  pus-forming  organisms  are  present  at  the  same  time.  In  the  pus 
of  sheep,  staph,  pyogenes  is  chiefly  present,  while  in  hogs,  dogs,  and  cats  it  is 
staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus. 

Suppuration  remains  localized  as  a  rule,  in  the  form  of  suppurativc 
catarrh  (pyorrhea),  ulceration,  suppurative  exudate  (empyema)  or  sup- 
puration inside  of  the  tissues  (abscess)  ;  or  it  may  be  generalized  through- 
out the  circulation,  and  develops  into  pyemia.  (See  Chap.  VII,  section  6.) 
The  local  abscesses  may  become  encapsulated,  and  heal  by  drying  up  and 
calcification. 

For  judgment,  see  under  9. 

8,     Calcification 

Deposits  of  lime  salts  are  found  in  food  animals,  either  as  diffused 
calcifications  in  various  tissues  (cartilage,  fat  tissues),  or  as  circumscribed 
areas  of  calcifications,  which  partly  appear  as  end-products  of  retrogres- 
sive tissue  metamorphosis  (calcified  deposits  within  the  muscles,  calcified 
abscesses)  ;  and  also  deposits  enclosing  dead  parasites.  Circumscribed 
calcifications  are  also  designated  by  the  unsuitable  name  of  concrements 
(page  203). 

Concrements  proper,  which  occur  as  so-called  intestinal,  urinary,  biliary,  and 
renal  calculi,  and  which  are  occasionally  found  in  animals,  are  of  no  importance  in 
meat  inspection. 

For  judgment,  see  under  9. 

9,     Pathological  Pigment  Formation 

Abnormal  pigmentation  occurs  principally  in  cattle  and  in  calves ;  also 
in  sheep  and  hogs  (Lemke,  Feuereissen)  as  melanosis  maculosa ;  or  less 
frequently  as  melanosis  diffusa,  which  may  be  confined  to  single  organs 


Retrogressive  Nutritive  Disturbances,  etc.  199 

(lungs,  pleura,  liver,  meninges,  various  parts  of  the  subcutis,  musclar 
aponeurosis),  or  may  be  generalized.  In  the  latter  form  all  connective  tis- 
sues may  be  intermixed  with  black-colored  spots.  The  melano-sarcomata 
belong  to  the  multiple  tumor-formations. 

The  condition  described  by  Virchow  as  ochronosis — a  brown  to  blackish  colora- 
tion of  the  cartilage,  tendons,  and  capsules  of  the  joints — is  brought  on  by  imbibi- 
tion of  the  basic  substance  with  coloring  similar  to  that  of  melanin.  It  occurs  in 
cattle,  calves,  and  hogs.  (Mosselmann,  Brouvier,  Lachmann,  Helrout,  Bail,  and 
others.) 

The  condition  described  by  Goltz  as  xanthosis,  and  which  is  of  comparatively 
rare  occurrence,  consists  of  a  liver-brown  discoloration  of  the  muscles ;  according  to 
Roth  and  Resow,  a  designation  of  "brown  atrophy"  would  apply  more  correctly  to 
this  condition.  It  is  always  associated  with  changes  of  the  supra-renal  capsules. 

The  hematogenous  pigment  formations  (changing  of  the  blood  coloring-matter 
in  extravasations,  etc.,  page  191),  and  the  symptomatic  discoloration  of  tissues 
(icterus)  cannot  be  considered  here. 

In  judging  cases  of  atrophic  degeneration  and  infiltration  of  tissues 
(pages  194-199),  it  should  be  decided  in  the  first  place,  whether  the 
processes  are  purely  localized  or  whether  they  represent  symptoms  of 
general  affections. 

As  localized  cases  are  considered,  all  those  conditions  of  atrophy,  fatty 
infiltration,  necrosis,  suppuration,  calcification  and  pigment-formation  in 
which  either  the  affection  is  slight  and  the  localized  diseased  parts  are 
removable,  or  the  affected  organ  itself  is  considered  as  unwholesome  and 
must  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food. 

Fatty  infiltration,  however,  gives  no  cause  for  condemnation  unless  at 
the  same  time  conspicuous  changes  in  the  consistence  (pulpy  softening) 
of  such  organs  c'onfer  upon  them  the  character  of  a  spoiled  condition. 

In  necrosis  and  gangrene  the  meat  should  be  carefully  examined  for 
evidence  of  septicemia;  and  in  fresh  suppurations  a  similar  examination 
regarding  pyemic  manifestations  should  be  made. 

General  muscular  atrophy  should  be  judged  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  emaciation  (page  183). 

Pigment  formation  may  appear  wide-spread  throughout  the  entire 
body  (melanosis),  thereby  rendering  the  animal  unfit  for  human  food.  In 
local  pigmentations,  judgment  should  be  made  in  accordance  with  the 
regulations. 

The  occurrence  of  cloudy  swelling,  fatty,  mucoid,  hyaline,  and  amy- 
loid degenerations  points  usually  to  severe  generalized  affections,  and 
judging  should  be  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  disease. 

Circumscribed  calcifications — so-called  lime  concrements — have  to  be 
judged  according  to  their  etiology,  especially  if  they  appear  in  multiples, 
and  are  more  or  less  extensive  (see  muscle  concrements,  page  203). 


2oo  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

[The  judgment  of  the  conditions  described  above  is  carried  out  by 
the  United  States  meat-inspection  force  on  similar  lines  to  those  provided 
by  the  German  regulations.] 

D,     Hypertrophy*     Hyperplasia.     Metaplasia 

The  hypertrophy  of  an  organ  through  enlargement  of  the  elementary  constitu- 
ents (hypertrophy),  or  through  increase  of  these  constituents  (hyperplasia),  has  no 
importance  in  meat  inspection,  as  in  this  condition  the  macroscopical  composition 
does  not  appear  changed. 

The  condition  designated  as  metaplasia,  represents  transformation  of  already 
developed  tissues  into  other  tissues,  without  intervention  of  organisms  or  connective 
tissues;  it  occurs  in  food  animals  as  bone-formation  in  scars  (castration  scars),  in 
the  belly-fat  and  mesentery  of  hogs,  etc.,  and  is  of  no  importance  to  meat  inspection. 

Judgment. — Hyperthrophic  and  hyperplastic  organs  give  no  cause  for  condemna- 
tion. Metaplastic  tissues,  however,  should  be  condemned  inasmuch  as  they  repre- 
sent foreign  bodies  in  the  affected  tissues.  [The  same  disposition  is  observed  by  th^: 
United  States  meat-inspection  force.] 

v_  ,    .    .,.,,.  . 

E,     Tumors 

Nonmalignant  tumors  appear  principally  localized,  and  confined  as 
solitary  or  isolated  new  formations  on  one  and  the  same  part  of  the  body. 

In  malignant  tumors  (sarcoma  and  carcinoma)  an  affection  of  the 
corresponding  lymph  glands  is  invariably  associated,  and  sometimes  there 
is  extensive  metastasis,  which  may  result  in  generalized  sarcomatosis  and 
carcinomatosis,  without  the  accompaniment  of  cachectic  conditions  in  the 
lower  animals. 

Judgment. — Nonmalignant  tumors  are  usually  easily  removed,  and 
after  their  removal  they  have  no  influence  on  the  wholesomeness  of  the 
part  of  the  body  from  which  they  were  excised. 

Regarding  malignant  tumors,  transmissibility  of  sarcomas  and  car- 
cinomas to  man  by  the  ingestion  of  meat  is  probably  to  be  excluded ;  at 
any  rate  it  is  not  yet  proven.  In  most  cases  the  affected  organ,  together 
with  its  lymph  glands  is  involved  by  malignant  tumors  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  becomes  unfit  for  human  food,  and  should  therefore  be  condemned. 

Where  tumors  are  numerous,  a  decision  is  made  from  the  extent  of 
the  lesions  and  the  nutritive  state  of  the  carcass  as  to  whether  it  should  be 
passed  for  food,  declared  of  an  inferior  quality,  or  be  condemned.  The 
latter  should  always  be  pronounced  if  metastasis  occurs  on  numerous  parts 
of  the  skeleton,  body,  or  in  the  lymph  glands ;  or  if  secondary  changes 
(watery  condition,  flabbiness,  etc.)  are  observed  in  the  muscles. 

Regarding  so-called  granulomata  or  infectious  growths  (new  formations  in 
tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  botryomycosis,  and  glanders),  note  the  chapter  on  infec- 
tious diseases. 


Malformations — Skeleton    Muscles  201 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  23,  any 
organ  or  part  of  carcass  which  is  affected  by  malignant  or  benign  tumors 
shall  be  condemned,  but  when  the  lesions  are  so  extensive  as  to  affect  the 
whole  carcass,  the  whole  carcass  shall  be  condemned.] 

F,     Malformations 

Various  malformations  which  occur  in  food  animals  are  only  of 
importance  in  meat  inspection  should  they  conspicuously  change  the 
appearance  or  structure  of  that  respective  part  of  the  body.  When 
marked  structural  changes  are  present,  or  if  there  be  a  repulsive  appear- 
ance of  the  malformed  part,  it  should  be  declared  as  unfit  for  human  food  : 
in  milder  cases  only  partial  condemnation  may  be  necessary. 

3,    The  Principal   Affections   of  Tissues  and  Organs 

In  the  following  section,  only  those  pathologic-anatomical  changes  of 
tissues  and  organs  will  be  discussed  which  possess  a  certain  importance 
in  meat  inspection,  and  which  have  not  been  sufficiently  described  in  the 
previous  chapters. 

In  judging  these  tissues  and  organic  diseases  in  meat  inspection,  it 
should  be  understood  that  they  usually  cause  purely  localized  changes, 
which  require  only  removal  of  the  diseased  tissues  or  the  respective 
organs,  for  only  exceptionally  do  they  affect  the  full  value  of  the  entire 
carcass.  Therefore  the  judging  of  the  diseases  described  below,  which 
should  be  chiefly  carried  out  according  to  the  regulations,  will  not  be 
further  mentioned  under  the  various  processes,  and  will  be  specified  only 
in  such  places  where  they  have  to  be  considered  from  an  additional  point 
of  view. 

A,     Skeleton  Muscles 

i.  Hemorrhages  may  appear  in  muscles  as  local  and  multiple  hemor- 
rhages. The  first  occur  from  local  traumatic  influences  which  result  in  a 
tearing  of  the  muscular  fibers  and  their  blood-vessels.  Multiple  hemor- 
rhages are  sometimes  due  to  toxic  or  infectious  causes ;  more  frequently, 
however,  they  are  of  mechanical  origin. 

Multiple  hemorrhages  in  muscles  of  fattened  hogs  belong  to  hemor- 
rhages of  mechanical  origin  ( f ragmentatio  hemorrhagica  carnis,  Kitt). 
They  result  from  tearing  of  the  muscle  fibers  and  capillaries  in  conse- 
quence of  exertions,  to  which  the  fatty  infiltrated  muscular  fibers  are  not 
equal  on  account  of  not  being  used  to  work.  They  are  found  as  irregular, 
isolated  spots,  of  sizes  ranging  from  a  pin's  head  to  twice  the  size  of  a 
pea,  in  at  least  8  per  cent,  of  all  the  slaughtered  hogs,  and  principally  in 
the  muscles  of  the  diaphragm ;  next  in  frequency  they  occur  in  the  abdomi- 


2O2  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

nal,  psoas,  and  pelvic  muscles.  In  rare  cases  they  may  also  be  found  in 
all  the  skeleton  muscles.  Occasionally  multiple  hemorrhages  may  also 
occur  in  all  species  of  food  animals ;  for  instance,  they  were  described  in 
cattle,  by  Clausen. 

Multiple  hemorrhages  of  toxic  and  infectious  origin  are  accompany- 
ing  symptoms  of  phosphorous  poisoning,  tetanus,  and  anthrax,  as  well  as 
septic  and  pyemic  diseases.  Besides  these,  there  are  always  present 
ecchymoses  on  the  serous  membranes  and  other  characteristic  lesions  of 
the  respective  general  diseases.  The  judgment  of  meat  showing  these 
hemorrhages  should,  therefore,  be  carried  out  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  condition  which  produced  them. 

2.  Inflammatory  processes  of  the  muscles  are  principally  of  trau- 
matic origin,  and  are  locally  confined.     Inflammatory  changes    which  are 
scattered  and  not  of  traumatic  origin  (polymyositis)    appear  as  symptoms 
of  severe  general  affections,  and  result  frequently  in  muscle  degenerations. 

Whether  the  so-called  "chicken-meat  appearance,"  which  has  been  several  times 
observed  in  calves  and  young  cattle,  represents  always  an  interstitial  myositis  (Stoss, 
Bayersdorfer,  or  whether  the  condition  might  be  the  result  of  deficiency  of  muscle 
coloring  matter,  is  not  yet  definitely  established.  The  latter  is  probably  also  the 
case  in  iridescence  of  the  muscles,  which  is  occasionally  observed  on  the  longissimus 
dorsi  muscle  of  hogs.  More  frequently,  iridescence  occurs  on  boiled,  pickled,  or 
smoked  meat  (see  Chap.  IX). 

3.  Degenerations,  cloudy  swelling,  or  granular  degeneration  of  the 
muscle  fibers  occur  in  severe  intoxications  and  in  febrile  infectious  dis- 
eases.    The  macroscopical  appearance  of  the  degenerated  muscle  shows  a 
flabby,   mellow,  pale,   gray,   and  cloudy  condition ;   microscopically,   the 
muscle   fibers    show   fine   granular,    dust-like,    albuminous   precipitation, 
which  disappears  upon  addition  of  acetic  acid  (see  page  194). 

In  fatty  degeneration  the  muscles  appear  still  softer,  yellowish,  or 
mottled,  with  yellow  stripes.  Microscopically,  strong  refractory  bodies 
(fat  globules)  are  found,  which,  under  certain  conditions,  may  cover  the 
cross  striations,  and  do  not  disappear  upon  addition  of  acetic  acid  (see 
Fig.  79). 

Regarding  fatty  infiltration,  which  should  not  be  confused  with  fatty 
degeneration,  see  page  195. 

Hyaline  or  glassy  degeneration  is  observed  in  hemaglobinemia,  mor- 
bus  maculosus,  acute  muscular  rheumatism,  and  in  parturient  paresis 
(Zschokke). 

Macroscopically,  hyaline  degeneration  is  only  recognizable  when  it 
affects  numerous  muscle  fibers.  In  such  cases,  the  muscles  appear  cloudy, 
dull,  pale,  like  the  meat  of  fish.  Microscopically,  the  necrotic  and  so- 
called  contractile  substances  appear  homogeneous,  glassy,  and  disinte- 
grated into  flakes. 


Connective  Tissue 


20  ^ 


d 


The  nature  of  hyaline  degeneration  of  muscles  observed  in  isolated 
cases  in  young  cattle  and  calves,  and  producing  a  white  or  colored  appear- 
ance, is  not  yet  clear. 

The  peculiar  changes  which  were  recently  described  as  specific  muscle 

degenerations  (Ostertag),  and  which  were 
formerly  designated  as  muscle  actinomycosis 
(Duncker),  also  appear  to  be  hyaline  de- 
generation, according  to  David.  This  spe- 
C  cific  degeneration  develops  also  without  a 
general  diseased  condition  (Fig.  83). 

4.  Lime  concrements  are  often  found  in 
the  muscles  of  hogs,  and  may  occur  in  large 
numbers.  Frequently  they  may  be  recog- 
nized by  the  naked  eye  as  small,  elongated, 
or  round,  gray  or  grayish-white  points  and 
dots.  They  are  most  frequently  met  with 
in  muscles  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdomen. 
These  concrements  are  indicative  of  either 
the  end-products  of  retrogressive  metamor- 
phosis of  the  tissues,  or  calcification  of  dead 
parasites.  The  latter  is  occasionally  con- 
firmed by  microscopical  examination,  which, 
however,  does  not  disclose  the  nature  of 
the  concrements  in  numerous  cases.  Glage 

tenuicollis 


Fig.  81.  Amyloid  degen- 
eration ;  a,  transversly 
striated  normal  fibers ;  b, 
degenerated  fibers;  c,  en- 
larged muscle  nuclei ;  d, 
connective  tissue  infiltrated 
with  cells,  x  250  diameters 
(after  Ziegler). 


demonstrated  cysticercus  tenuicollis  as 
the  cause  of  lime  concrements  occurring 
in  sheep. 

Tumors  occurring  in  the  muscles,  embolic 
affections,  metaplasia,  and  parasites  are  dis- 
cussed elsewhere. 

Blastomycosis  of  the  muscles  of  cattle,  de- 
scribed by  Ostertag,  is  very  rare.  All  the 
muscles  are  studded  with  fibrinous  nodules  in 
sizes  ranging  from  a  lentil  to  that  of  a  walnut, 
the  centers  of  which  contain  punctiform,  yel- 
lowish, cloudy  colonies. 

Judgment  of  the  above  affections  of 
the  muscles,  see  page  201.  Occasionally, 
especially  in  the  presence  of  lime  con- 
crement,  the  meat  must  be  considered  of 
inferior  quality. 


Fig.  82.  Lime  concretions  in 
the  muscles  of  hog.  x  40 
diameters. 


204 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


B,     Connective  Tissue 

1.  Hemorrhages. — Regarding  the  etiology  and  anatomy  of  hemor- 
rhages  which  occur  in  connective  tissue   the  same  remarks  apply    which 
were  stated  above  relative  to  hemorrhages  of  the  muscles  ;  and  also  on  page 
190,  concerning  hemorrhages  in  general. 

2.  Imbibition   with   blood   coloring-matter   only  occurs    in   general 
affections  (intoxications  and  infectious  diseases),  where  the  blood  becomes 
wax-colored,  or  where  through  action  of  water  post  mortem,  the  blood 
contained  in  the  meat  transmits  coloring  matter  to  the  fluids  of  the  tis- 
sues (for  instance,  meat  exposed  to  tKe  rain). 

But  as  meat  from  well-bled  animals  should  only  contain  traces  of 
blood,  therefore  only  an  insignificant  local  bloody  imbibition  can  develop 

through  the  influence 
of  water.  Accord- 
ingly the  larger 
bloody  imbibitions  are 
always  suspicious. 

3.  Inflammatory 
a  n  d  breaking-down 
processes  in  connec- 
tive tissue  (hypere- 
mia,  edema,  phleg- 
mon, suppurations, 
etc.)  appear  under 
known  pathologic- 
anatomical  manifes- 
tations. Large  and  extensive  edemas  may  be  the  symptoms  of  severe 
general  affections  (hydremia,  cachexia).  In  suppuration  and  putrefac- 
tion of  the  connective  tissues,  pyemia  and  septicemia  should  be 
remembered. 

4.  Emphysema. — The  presence  of  air  in  the  subcutaneous  tissue  and 
the  intermusclar  connective  tissue  may  be  artificially  produced  by  inflat- 
ing the  carcasses  of  calves  and  sheep  (page  27),  through  forcing  air  into 
the  subcutis. 

[This  practice  in  this  country  is  confined  to  Louisiana  and  Eastern 
Texas  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  French  people.] 

Furthermore,  emphysema  may  result  from  injuries  of  the  air-pas- 
sages and  lungs,  as  well  as  through  escape  of  gas  from  the  intestines,  in 
cases  where  adhesions  of  the  intestines  to  the  abdominal  wall  are  present 
causing  perforation  to  take  place.  In  such  cases  the  collection  of  gas  in 


Fig.    83.     Specific    degeneration    of   the   muscle   of 
hog,    x   35    diameter.     (After    Duncker.  i 


Fat  Tissue — Bone  Tissue  205 

the  connective  tissue  becomes  conspicuous  by  its  disagreeable  odor.  The 
latter  is  also  noticeable,  when  emphysema  is  the  result  of  gangrenous 
decompositions,  black-leg,  septicemia,  etc.  Also  injuries  to  the  skin, 
which  allow  the  subcutaneous  tissues  to  come  in  contact  with  the  outside 
air,  may  result  in  emphysema  at  such  places  where  the  skin  is  easily  dis- 
placed ( extremities  ) . 

The  other  pathological  changes  in  connective  tissue  are  either  of  no  importance 
in  meat  inspection  or  are  discussed  in  other  parts;  such  as  parasitic  affections, 
tumors,  and  embolic  processes. 

Regarding  the  judgment  of  such  changes  in  the  connective  tissue,  see 
page  20 1.  Inflated  meat,  according  to  the  regulations,  is  to  be  declared 
unfit  for  human  food. 

C.     Fat  Tissue 

In  general,  the  fat  tissue  is  rarely  affected  by  diseased  changes :  occa- 
sionally, however,  the  following  characteristics  may  be  present: 

i.  A  sclerotic  condition  of  the  fat  tissues  (lipoma)  occurs  occasion- 
ally in  the  kidney  fat  of  cattle  and  in  hog  leaf  lard  (especially  in  hogs 
from  Bakony-Hungary).  The  fat  tissue  in  these  places  appears  in  larger 
or  smaller  nodules,  opaque,  firm,  almost  like  skin  (called  fat-stones  by 
butchers).  Microscopically,  there  is  found  a  hyperplasia  of  connective 
tissue  structures  3t  the  expense  of  the  number  of  fat  cells. 

2.  Black  pigmentation  appears  occasionally  in  the  belly-fat  of  fat  black-haired 
hogs,  very  probably  the  result  of  hemorrhages  (Ostertag).     They  appear  as  numer- 
ous black  irregularly-formed  spots,  frequently  branched  in  the  shape  of  trees  or  like 
veins.     Besides  a  deposit  of  coloring  matter  (melanosis  diffusa)  may  be  frequently 
observed  on  the  belly-fat  of  hogs,  which  gives  to  the  bacon    a  bluish-black  appear- 
ance, with  fine  dotted  lines,  and  at  some  places  a  brownish  tint  (Glage,  Feuereissen). 
A  green  coloration  of  fat  tissue  and  muscles  near  the  intestinal  tract,  on  the  breast- 
bone, carpal  joint,  hips,  and  abdomen   *vas  found  by  Beel    in  cattle  which  were  con- 
stantly pastured.     In  boiling  the  discolored  meat  of  these  regions  an  impregnated 
''grass  odor"  appeared. 

3.  Multiple  fat  necrosis  has  been  repeatedly  observed  in  the  retro-peritoneal  fat 
tissue   on  the  fat  of  the  mesentery,  and  on  the  omentum    :n  the  form  of  numerous 
yellow-white  opaque  colonies,   up   to   the   size  of  a  ten-cent   piece    (Ostertag).     It 
may  be  that  this  affection,  which  is  usually  of  no  consequence  in  meat  inspection,  is 
associated  with  a  diseased  condition  of  the  pancreas   (page  209). 

The  judgment  of  the  diseased  changes  of  the  fat  tissue  is  indicated  on 
page  20 1. 

D,     Bone  Tissue 

The  various  diseased  conditions  involving  the  bones  do  not  require  a 
special  discussion  at  this  time,  since  they  mostly  occur  as  purely  local 
changes,  are  readily  intelligible  as  to  their  pathologic-anatomical  nature, 
and  are  of  little  importance  in  meat  inspection.  But  inasmuch  as  diseases 


206 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


of  bone-tissue  and  bone-marrow  may  also  occur  in  association  with  gen- 
eral affections,  as  in  rhachitis,  osteomalacia,  osteomylitis,  pyemia,  leukemia, 
or  from  a  parasitic  cause  (tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  botryomycosis, 
glanders,  echinococci)  they  are  mentioned  in  course  of  the  description  of 
these  respective  diseases.  Regarding  pigmentation  of  bone-tissue,  see 
page  199. 

Although  pr external  calcification  (Ostertag)  does  not  belong  directly 
to  affections  of  the  bones,  nevertheless  discussion  of  that  condition  is  best 

given  at  this  place.  Occa- 
sionally there  is  found  in  cattle 
in  the  presternal  fat-cushion, 
knobby,  irregularly  shaped  for- 
mations with  calcified  contents 
of  sizes  ranging  from  that  of  a 
nut  to  as  large  as  a  man's  fist. 
Occasionally  these  formations 
extend  into  the  sternum  as  a  re- 
sult of  pressure.  In  a  superficial 
examination  these  calcifications 
might  be  mistaken  for  tubercular 
lesions,  but  they  are,  without  a 
doubt,  of  traumatic  origin.  They 
can  be  distinguished  from  tuber- 
cular processes  by  their  appear- 
ance of  plaster-Paris  like  masses, 
which  are  pure  white  in  color. 
(Fig.  84.) 

For  the  judgment  of  bone  af- 
fections see  page  201. 


Fig.  84.  Cross  section  through  the  point 
of  the  breast  of  cattle  with  presternal  calci- 
fication ;  a,  lime  deposit ;  b,  normal  cushion 
of  the  sternum ;  c,  sternal  bones. 


E,     Cartilaginous  Tissue 

The    pathological    changes   of 
the  cartilaginous  tissues  have  no  significance  for  the  inspector  of  meats. 


F,     The  Other  Meat  Components 

Diseases  of  other  components  of  meat  in  the  narrow  sense,  namely 
those  of  the  nervous  system,  the  lymph  and  blood  vessels  and  lymph 
glands  will  be  discussed  later. 

G,     Digestive  Apparatus 

Traumatic  inflammation  of  the  rumen. — Through  the  pricking  of  the 
rumen  by  sharp  foreign  bodies  taken  up  with  food,  a  chronic  inflammation 
develops  of  a  suppurative  or  sclerotic  nature,  which  results  in  thickening 


Digestive  Apparatus  207 

> 

of  the  wall  of  that  organ;  and  also,  as  a  rule,  in  plastic  or  suppurative 
inflammation  of  the  serous  covering.  Besides,  adhesion  of  the  rumen  to 
neighboring  organs  may  also  develop,  which  generally  involves  the  dia- 
phragm first.  Through  strong  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  rumen, 
sharp  foreign  bodies  are  pushed  forward  and  principally  in  the  direction 
of  the  diaphragm.  In  their  course  around  the  tissues  these  foreign  bodies 
form  fibrous  tissue,  fistulous  tracts  and  abscesses,  with  greenish-yellow 
pus.  The  abscess  may  develop  between  the  stomach,  liver,  and  dia- 
phragm, and  may  become  the  size  of  a  man's  head.  . 

After  perforation  of  the  diaphragm,  these  foreign  bodies  not  infre- 
quently strike  the  pericardium,  which  is  only  about  3-4  cm.  from  it,  result- 
ing in  pericarditis. 

Regarding  septic  peritonitis  or  pleuritis,  which  develops  from  perfora- 
tion of  suppurative  material  into  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  cavities,  see 
Chap.  VII,  section  6,  A,  12-13. 

2.  Peptic  Ulcers. — Round  or  peptic  ulcers  are  occasionally  found 
in  the  abomasum  of  calves  in  the  form  of  sharply-defined  erosions  in  the 
mucous  membrane,  with  slightly  rounded  edges.     The  ulcers  are  not  nec- 
essarily always  round;  they  may  extend  into  the  muscular  coat  of  the 
stomach ;  and  occasionally  only  the  serous  membrane  of  the  thickness  of 
paper  is  left  intact.    Similar  ulcers  may  also  occur  in  the  duodenum.   The 
inspector's  attention  is  usually  called  to  the  presence  of  these  affections 
in  the  abomasum,  by  peritonitis,  which  corresponds  with  the  location  of 
the  ulcers;  or  a  perforation  of  the  ulcer  may  occur  shortly  before  death 
of  the  animal,  as  during  transportation  for  slaughter,  etc.,  and  in  such 
cases  the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

Should  the  ulcer,  through  an  early  perforation,  produce  septic  per- 
itonitis, the  meat  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food.  In  late 
perforations  care  should  be  taken  in  the  judgment,  on  account  of  a  repul- 
sive sour  odor  which  the  meat  may  possess  (boiling  test).  Otherwise, 
peptic  ulcers  are  of  no  importance  to  the  veterinary  inspector  of  meats. 

[If  peritonitis  develops  in  consequence  of  a  peptic  ulcer  the  carcass 
should  be  condemned  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  sec- 
tion 1 8,  a.] 

3.  Diffused  lymphadcnia  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum 
is  sometimes  observed  in  cattle.     On  the  rigid  stomach- wall   the  mucous 
membrane  appears  sometimes  to  the  thickness  of  5  cm.,  fatty,  grayish- 
white,  and  glassy  in  places. 

4.  The  rarely  occurring  diphtheritic  inflammation  of  the  abomasum  of  cattle 
is,  according  to  Ledschbor,  due  to  a  long  filamentous  bacterium,  which  resembles 
very  much  the  bacillus  necrophorns. 


208  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases    etc. 

5.  Multiple  hemorrhages  in  the  intestinal  wall  have  heen  occasionally  observed 
in  cattle  and  hogs;  in  the  latter    it  is  usually  associated  with  multiple  hemorrhages 
of  the  muscles  (page  201).     The  origin  of  these  hemorrhages  is  not  yet  sufficiently 
explained.     It  may  be  that  the  small  hemorrhages  are  of  purely  mechanical  origin 
(severe  coughing,  asphyxia)  ;  larger  ones  on  the  other  hand,  may  have  other  causes, 
such  as  septic  and  other  acute  infections,  which    however    may  be  excluded  from 
cases  mentioned  here.     To  point  out  this   fact  is  the  only  reason   for  mentioning 
these  larger  hemorrhages. 

6.  Regarding  characteristic  changes  of  the  intestines  in  hog  cholera,  see  Chap. 
VII,  Sec.  6,  B.  No.  3. 

7.  Changes  of  the  liver,  which  were  formerly  called  angiomatosis, 
were  recently  designated  as  teleangiectasis  by  Jaeger ;  this  condition  com- 
monly occurs  in  older  animals,  most  frequently  in  a  multiple  and  spotted 
form  in  cows  (hemangioma  cavernosum  hepatis,  Kitt). 

Even  externally  can  be  seen  under  the  serous  membrane  of  the  liver 
deepened,  irregularly  formed,  purple-red  to  bluish-black  spots,  in  greatly 
varying  sizes,  sometimes  confined  to  single  sections  of  the  liver,  but  may 
also  affect  the  entire  organ.  On  the  cut  surface  the  spots  appear  con- 
tracted, of  a  reddish  tinge  and  spongy  consistence  (blood  sponges),  and 
are  sharply  separated  from  the  otherwise  normal  liver  parenchyma. 

According  to  Jaeger,  the  anatomical  foundation  of  the  teleangiectatic  degenera- 
tion in  the  liver  of  cattle  results  primarily  from  a  breaking  down  of  liver  cells  in 
groups,  leaving  the  bordering  capillary  endothelium  intact.  Thus  the  unaffected 
capillary  blood  circulation  extends  under  its  own  blood  pressure  toward  the 
margin  of  the  altered  parenchyma,  forming  sinuses,  and  finally  cavernous  spaces. 
There  are  no  satisfactory  explanations  concerning  the  cause  of  this  degeneration 
(illustration  on  Plate  II,  Fig.  2). 

8.  Chronic  interstitial  hepatitis  may  occur  in  various  stages  in  all 
food  animals.     In  the  early  stages    the  liver  appears  greatly  enlarged, 
grayish-brown  in  color,  firm  and  dense   (hypertrophic  cirrhosis),  while 
later  it  becomes  smaller  and  harder,  through  the  cicatricial  contraction  of 
the  interstitial  newly-formed  connective  tissue.     Portions  of  the  paren- 
chyma become  obliterated,  while  intact  parts  of  the   latter  protrude   so 
that  the  surface  and  the  section  of  the  liver    appear  granular  (atrophic 
cirrhosis,  cirrhotic  granular  atrophy,  hob-nail  liver). 

According  to  Tschauner,  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  in  hogs  appears  to  be  produced 
occasionally  by  feeding  alcoholic  food-stuffs  which  are  in  the  act  of  fermentation 
(swill).  Cirrhosis  of  the  liver  in  horses  is  of  importance  in  diagnosis  of  so-called 
''Schweinsberger  disease."  The  cirrhotic  connective  tissue  proliferation  in  the 
liver  of  cattle  having  distomatosis  is,  according  to  Jaeger,  due  to  the  irritating  toxic 
products  of  metabolism  from  distomas  in  the  bile  ducts. 

9.  Multiple  liver  necrosis  is  observed  principally  in  cattle  (necrosis 
nodosa,  Kitt),  but  it  occurs  also  in  calves,  sheep,  hogs    (hog  cholera), 


Peritoneum  209 

horses,  an  1  dogs.  Through  the  liver,  which  is  frequently  enlarged, 
icteric,  of  an  olive-brown  to  a  red-brown  color,  are  disseminated  embolic, 
pale-brown  or  grayish-yellow  sharply  circumscribed  foci  or  nodules  in 
large  numbers.  They  are  without  luster,  brittle,  compact,  and  surrounded 
in  the  early  stages  by  a  red  zone,  but  later  by  a  connective  tissue  capsule. 
Occasionally  in  later  stages  the  necrotic  masses  are  transformed  into  a 
greenish,  flaky,  pus-like  fluid.  The  causative  factor  of  these  changes  is 
the  bacillus  necrophorus,  which  is  conveyed  to  the  liver  by  the  portal  or 
umbilical  vessels  and  obtains  lodgment  in  that  organ. 

10.  Calcareo-fibrous   nodules   are   quite    frequently    found   in   the   liver   of   the 
horse   (chalicosis  nodosa).     They  are  disseminated  in  all  parts  of  the  liver  tissue, 
as  sharply  circumscribed  yellow  to  yellowish-brown   formations,   of  sizes   ranging 
from  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  millet  seed,  and  are  parasitic  in  origin. 

11.  A  peculiar  nodular  formation  in  a  calf's  liver  is  described  by  Langer.     He 
found  in  that  organ  sharply  circumscribed  foci    situated    under    the    capsule   of    the 
liver,  which  were  of  a  grayish-white    to  an  orange-red  color,  and  of  varying  sizes 
up  to  a  millet  seed.     Langer  considers  the  foci  as  the  remains  of  an  infectious  dis- 
ease, which  is  produced  by  a  bacillus   first  isolated  by  Bugge,  and  which  he  termed 
bacillus  nodulifacius  bovis,  a  new  species  of  the  para-typhoid  group.     Manifestation 
of  a  general  disease  was  not  observed  in  the  affected  calves. 

12.  Fatty   necrosis  of  the  pancreas   is   observed   in   old,   very   fat   hogs.     The 
greatly    hypertrophied    fat    tissue    enveloping    the   pancreas     shows    numerous    dull 
grayish-yellow  or  grayish  nodular  areas,  which  are  dry,  hard,  or  cheesy.  The  gland- 
ular tissue  propei    appears  intact,  and  therefore  no  disturbances  in  the  general  con- 
dition of  the  animals  can  be  observed.     The  nature  of  the  necrosis  is  still  unknown 
(see  also  page  205,  under  C.  3). 

Regarding  the  judgment  for  the  above-mentioned  diseases  of  the 
digestive  apparatus,  see  page  201. 

H.     Peritoneum 

i.  Mesenteric  emphysema  (intestinal  emphysema  Jaeger)  of  the 
hog. — On  the  small  intestines  and  its  mesentery  are  found  not  infre- 
quently single  or  grape-like  clusters  of  air-containing  cysts  of  sizes  rang- 
ing from  a  pin  head  to  a  grape,  which  sometimes  hang  on  pedicles.  The 
\valls  of  the  cysts  appear  transparent,  or  are  colored  red ,  by  hemorrhages. 
Sometimes  the  air-cysts  accompany  the  course  of  the  mesenteric  vessels 
in  the  form  of  a  rose  wreath ;  occasionally  cysts  are  also  found  in  the  mus- 
cular coat  of  the  intestines  and  in  the  lymph  glands.  The  origin  of  this 
pneumatosis  which  was  investigated  by  Schmutzer  and  Heydemann  is, 
according  to  Jaeger,  caused  by  the  bacterium  coli  lymphaticum  aerogenes, 
which  belongs  to  the  coli  group  and  penetrates  the  intestinal  wall,  where  it 
produces  gas  as  a  result  of  its  great  fermenting  qualities ;  it  only  secon- 
darily extends  to  the  mesentery  in  severe  cases. 


2io  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

2.  Hypophrenic   Abscesses. — Abscess    formations    which   may    develop   at   any 
part  of  the  peritoneum    are  of  the  greatest  interest  in  meat  inspection,  and  those 
suppurations  which  not  infrequently  develop  between  the  diaphragm,  liver,  and  kid- 
neys of  cattle    may  often  reach  a  considerable  size,  and  are  encapsulated.     In  the 
process  of  removing  the  abdominal  viscera,  these  abscesses  are  frequently  cut  open, 
resulting  in  a  soiling  of  the  viscera  and  the  parietal  serous  membrane  of  the  bod} 
cavities  with  the  contained  pus.     In  such  cases    the  serous  membranes  should  be 
removed  as  well  as  the  superficial  layer  of  the  meat   which  has  been  contaminated. 
Regarding  other  results  from  these  abscesses,  see  page  299. 

3.  Regarding  peritonitis  as  a  result  of  heavy  infestation  by  cysticercns  tenui- 
collis,  see  page  232. 

4.  Multiple   calcifications   in   the    form   of  flat    elevations    (Ostertag)    of   sizes 
ranging  from  a  pin  head  to  that  of  a  lentil,  occur  comparatively  rarely  on  the  peri- 
toneum in  cattle,  and  must  not  be  mistaken   for  tuberculosis. 

For  the  judging  of  the  diseases  of  the  peritoneum,  see  page  201. 

].     Genitcvurinary  Apparatus 

i.  The  white-spotted  kidney  of  calves  (nephritis  fibro-plastica  or 
maculosa  alba)  occurs  more  frequently  than  is  really  observed,  as  the 
recognition  of  these  changes  is  frequently  made  difficult  by  the  perirenai 

kidney  fat.  Even  on  the 
surface  of  the  kidney 
may  be  seen  slightly 
projecting  whitish-gray 
spots,  which  are  distrib- 
uted over  numerous  lob- 
ules, from  the  size  of  a 
millet  seed  to  that  of  a 
bean  and  even  a  hazel- 
nut.  On  section  the  white 
spots  appear  as  wedge- 
Fig.  85.  Kidney  of  calf  with  fibroplastic  nephritis  shaped  or  circular,  juicy, 

shining  areas,  which  ex- 
tend through  the  cortex,  reaching  to  the  medullary  or  tubular  layer.  In 
the  medullary  substance  the  grayish-white  extensions  appear  less  fre- 
quently. The  parenchyma  of  the  kidney  is  generally  unchanged;  occa- 
sionally a  slightly  reddened  zone  is  found  around  the  white  areas ;  or  less 
frequently  single  punctiform  hemorrhages  are  seen  in  the  parenchyma, 
which,  however,  are  probably  coincident. 

The  nature  of  these  spotted  changes  in  the  kidney  is,  according  to  Rieck,  Kitt, 
Kabitz,  and  others,  infectious  emboli,  while  Vaerst  considers  the  white  areas  as 
embryonic  nodular  remains  of  the  blastemic  state. 

De  Blieck  considers  the  process  as  an  acute,  hematogenous,  toxic,  parenchy- 
matous-and  interstitial  nephritis,  a  diffused  focal  nephritis,  the  cause  of  which  is 


Genito-urinary   Apparatus  211 

unknown.  Against  this,  however,  Gillebeau  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  inflamma- 
tory origin  of  the  spotted  kidney  is  neither  histologically  nor  clinically  understood, 
but  that  even  De  Blieck's  findings  speak  for  the  blastemic  theory. 

At  any  rate,  this  change  in  the  kidney  is  without  a  noticeable  influ- 
ence on  the  general  condition  of  the  calves ;  besides,  its  harmless  nature 
is  also  confirmed  by  complete  disappearance  of  the  spots  inside  of  the 
first  year  of  life. 

The  appearance  of  the  above-described  changes  in  a  diffused  extension  over 
the  entire  cortical  layer  of  the  kidney,  which  is  designated  by  Kitt  as  nephritis  alba, 
or  fibroplastica  diffusa,  is  quite  rare.  These  white  spots  are  confluent  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  entire  cortical  layer  appears  to  be  of  a  whitish  color.  In  the  medul- 
lary layer  there  is  always  a  hyperemia  in  such  cases  with  hemorrhages,  and  edema- 
tous  infiltration  of  parts  adjacent  to  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney. 

2.  From  purulent  nephritis,  which,  as  a  rule,  occurs  as  a  hemato- 
genous,  embolic,  focal  nephritis,  but  which  may  also  develop  gradually, 
should  be  distinguished  the  bacterial  (diphtheritic)  pyelonephritis,  which 
is  a  special  form.  It  appears  occasionally  in  cattle  on  one  or  both  sides, 
and  is  probably  of  hematogenous  origin  (Bollinger,  Ernst)  and  of  a  cryp- 
togenetic  nature. 

The  kidney  is  prominently  enlarged,  and  its  surface  is  either  spotted 
with  gray  or  totally  gray  in  color.  Moreover  the  kidney  is  enveloped  in 
a  fat  capsule  which  has  undergone  a  serous  infiltration.  On  section  a  col- 
lection of  slimy  pus  with  a  strongly  smelling  urinous  odor  is  noted  in  the 
distended  pelvis  of  the  kidney  and  in  the  dilated  calices,  the  walls  of 
which  are  considerably  thickened.  The  papillae  of  the  kidney  show  a 
diphtheritic  deposit,  and  pin-shaped,  radiating,  yellowish-gray  streaks  of 
various  breadths  extend  from  the  center  toward  the  cortex.  In  the  same, 
and  also  in  normally  appearing  parts  of  the  kidney,  may  be  found  small, 
suppurative,  softening  foci.  With  progression  of  the  lesion  the  kidney 
tissue  degenerates  more  and  more,  until  finally  the  enormously  enlarged 
kidney  may  only  represent  a  thin- walled  cyst  filled  with  pus  (pyone- 
phrosis).  Besides,  the  urethra  also  appears  dilated  and  filled  with  pus 
in  advanced  cases,  on  one  or  both  sides. 

The  bacillus  renalis  bovis  is  accepted  as  the  cause  of  pyelonephritis  in  cattle, 
but  mixed  infections  also  occur,  so  that  according  to  Kitt,  Cadeac,  Lucet,  and  Ernst, 
the  affection  may  be  considered  as  polybacterial,  similar  to  other  suppurative 
processes. 

In  judgment  of  pyelonephritis,  there  is  to  be  considered  the  general 
condition,  the  nutritive  state,  and  whether  there  are  other  suppurations 
in  the  body. 


212  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Unilateral  pyelonephritis  appears  generally  as  a  purely  local  affec- 
tion; if  bilateral,  retention  of  urine  has  to  be  suspected,  and  the  meat 
should  be  tested  by  boiling  for  odor  of  urine.  The  result  of  the  latter, 
and  also  other  changes  which  might  be  present,  determine  whether  the 
meat  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality  or  be  condemned  as  totally 
unfit  for  human  food. 

[In  cases  of  bilateral  pyelonephritis  causing  a  retention  of  urine,  the 
carcass  should  be  condemned  according  to  Regulation  13,  section  20,  of 
B.  A.  I.  Order  150.] 

3.  Cystic  and  bladder  kidneys  not  infrequently  appear  in  hogs,  cattle, 
and  occasionally  also  in  calves.    The  first  are  limited  to  single  small  or 
larger  sections  of  the  kidney    from  which  the  flow  of  the  urine  is  pre- 
vented, while  in  the  latter  the  entire  kidney   represents   a   cyst   filled   with 
urine  (hydronephrosis). 

When  the  latter  is  found  affecting  both  sides,  greater  attention  is 
required  in  the  judgment  of  the  meat,  as  not  only  meat  in  the  surrounding 
parts  may  be  watery,  but  such  may  also  occur  at  distant  parts  of  the  body. 
Besides  this  edematous  condition,  the  meat  might  possess  a  urinous  odor. 
The  boiling  test  should  determine  the  extent  of  this  condition,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  objective  finding  of  the  meat  it  should  be  passed  or 
declared  of  inferior  quality  or  condemned. 

[Frequently  only  one  kidney  is  found  cystic,  in  which  case  the  carcass 
is  passed  for  food ;  while  if  the  affection  is  bilateral,  causing  an  edematous 
condition  of  the  meat  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  or  if  the  meat  possesses 
a  urinous  odor,  the  carcass  should  be  condemned  (B1.  A.  I.  Order  150. 
Regulation  13,  section  20)]. 

4.  The  inflammations  of  the  uterus  are  for  the  inspector  of  promi- 
nent interest  on  account  of  their  relations  to  septicemia  (Chap.  VII,  page 
296).     All  acute  inflammations  of  the  uterus,  following  parturition,  or  as 
a  result  of   fetal  and    placental    decomposition,    should    be    considered 
suspicious. 

5.  Catarrh  of  the  uterus  may  result  in  hydrometra  and  pyometra, 
due  to  accumulations  of  muco-purulent  secretions  in  that  organ.     Chronic 
catarrh  (leucorrhea)    may  occasionally  be  followed  by  great  emaciation, 
thus  giving  sufficient  cause  to  declare  the  meat  of  inferior  quality.     Other- 
wise, the  suppurative  contents  of  the  uterus  is  of  no  consequence  if  there 
are  no  pyemic  or  septicemic  manifestations  present. 

[In  acute  cases  of  diffused  nephritis,  the  carcasses  should  be  con- 
demned (B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13  section  18,  d)]. 

6.     The  infectious  viginal  catarrh  of  cattle  (colpkis  follicularis  infectiosa,  vagi- 
nitis  granularis  infectiosa  bovis,  Raebiger),  of  which  the  causes  are  probably  spe- 


Udder — Respiratory  Apparatus  213 

cine  streptococci  (streptococcus  vaginitis  bovis,  Ostertag),  is  accompanied  by  a 
nodular  formation  in  the  inflamed  mucous  membrane.  It  is  of  no  importance  for  the 
veterinary  inspector. 

Regarding  the  diseases  of  the  urinary  and  sexual  apparatus,  see  page  201. 

K,     Udder 

1.  Catarrh  of  the  udder  is  only  mentioned  as  it  has  been  mistaken 
for  tuberculosis  of  the  udder.     The  enlarged  quarters  of  the  udder  are 
harder  ;•  from  the  teats  of  the  diseased  quarters    may  be  squeezed  out  a 
thick  ropy  secretion,  which  is  intermixed  with  pus ;  the  mammary  lymph 
glands  are  uniformly  swollen,  but  they  are  not  lumpy  and  hard.     On  the 
cut  surface  the  milk-ducts  are  found  to  be  dilated    and    filled    with   the 
above-mentioned  secretion ;  their  walls  are  thickened,  and  occasionally  the 
mucous    membrane    shows    firm    fibrous    nodules,    which,    on    superficial 
observation,    resemble    tuberculous    nodules.      The    interparenchymatous 
connective  tissue  is  increased ;  the  lobules  of  the  glands  are,  however, 
apparently  unchanged. 

In  the  course  of  catarrh  of  the  udder  some  of  the  milk-ducts  may 
become  obstructed  and  dilated,  so  that  cysts  will  develop,  which  on  touch 
are  lumpy  (milk  nodes)  and  are  filled  with  a  curdy  content. 

2.  Of  the  various  inflammations  of  the  udder,  there  will  be  men- 
tioned here  only  gangrenous  and  septic  mastitis  (Chap.  VII,  page  318), 
on  account  of  the  associated  severe  general  affection,  according  to  which 
the  judgment  should  be  made. 

A  catarrhal  form  of  mastitis,  which  leads  to  agalactia,  and  which  is  called  in 
Switzerland  " yellow  gait,"  is  caused  by  a  particular  streptococcus.  Dammann  and 
Freese  described  an  infectious  inflammation  of  the  udder  in  sheep  which  is  pro- 
duced by  a  rod-shaped  bacteria. 

3.  Regarding  the  characteristic  changes  in  color  of  cows'  udders  on  boiling, 
see  Chap.  VIII. 

For  judgment  of  the  disease  of  the  udder,  compare  with  page  201. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  18,  d, 
carcasses  which  are  affected  with  acute  diffused  mammitis  should  be 
condemned.] 

L,     Respiratory  Apparatus 

i.  Snbpleural  Jicinorrhagcs  of  the  lung,  which  are  very  frequently 
seen  in  food  animals,  originate  at  the  time  of  slaughter,  and  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  hemorrhages  from  suffocation.  They  are  punctiform,  sharply 
defined,  light  red  in  color,  and  are  disseminated  over  the  entire  lung. 
These  hemorrhages  are  absolutely  of  no  importance  for  the  inspector,  and 
should  not  be  mistaken  for  ecchymosis  of  septic  origin. 


214  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


Their 
white 


Fig.  86.  Calcareo-fibrous  nod- 
ule from  the  lung  of  a  horse;  «, 
connective  capsule;  b,  slightly, 
and  c,  markedly  calcified  center 
(after  Kitt). 


Fig.  87.  Calcareo- 
fibrous  nodules  from  the 
lung  of  a  horse;  a,  con- 
nective tissue  capsule; 
b,  calcified  zone  (after 
Kitt). 


2.  Of  inflammations  of  the  lungs  especially  to  be  noted  are  specific  pneumo- 
nias, which  characterize  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  in  cattle  and  swine-plague 
(see  pages  304  and  309). 

3.  Calcareo-fibrous  nodules  in  the  lungs  are  very  frequently  found 
in  horses  (chalicosis  nodularis).  They  occur  irregularly  scattered  in  the 
parenchyma  of  the  lung,  and  are  usually  very  numerous,  firm,  readily  peel, 
in  sizes  from  a  pin  head  to  that  of  a  hemp  seed,  and  are  rarely  as 

large     as     a     pea. 
color     is 
or    whitish- 
and     young 
nodules     appear 
glassy.      There    is 
no    red    zone    sur- 
sounding     them. 
The  origin  of  these 
nodules,  which  oc- 
casionally appear  at 
the    same    time    in 
the    liver    (page 
208) ,    might    be 
traced  back  to  em- 
bolic  invasion  of  animal  parasites  (Olt,  Kunnemann,  Schiitz,  Grips). 

In  differentiating  the  calcareo-fibrous  nodules  from  those  of  glanders, 
it  is  to  be  considered  that  in  the  first  place  the  red  zone  is  absent ;  further- 
more, they  are  of  uniform  size  and  consistence,  possess  pronounced  incli- 
nation toward  calcification,  while  all  manifestations  of  glanders  are 
absent.  Though  a  normal  condition  of  the  bronchial  glands  might  have 
some  weight  in  comparison  with  glanders,  there  are  instances  where 
calcareo-fibrous  nodules  may  also  appear  in  the  lymph  glands.  Besides, 
the  histological  structure  of  the  nodules  determines  the  nature  of  the 
affection,  which  is  reproduced  in  the  preceding  illustrations  (Figs.  86  and 
87),  in  comparison  with  the  structure  of  glanders  nodules  Chap.  VII, 
page  282. 

For  the  judgment  of  diseases  of  the  respiratory  apparatus,  see 
page  20 1. 

4.  Anthracosis  of  the  lungs  occurs  in  horses  and  cattle,  as  well  as  in  dogs,  in 
which  about  60  per  cent,  may  be  affected  with  it  (Feuereissen). 

5.  Pollution  of  the  lungs  with  blood  and  contents  of  the  stomach  may  follow 
the  slaughter  of  all  food  animals,  as  a  result  of  inhaling  these  substances.     Most 
frequently  it  occurs  in  animals  which  have  been  "shachted,"  but  is   found  also  in 
sheep    (Miiller),  cattle,  and  hogs.     While  blood  can  be  readily  recognized  by  the 
irregularly  red-colored   sections  of  the  lungs,  the  aspiration  of  food   can  be  only 
determined  by  cutting  into  the  lung  in  the  posterior  third  of  the  main  lobe.       Such 


Pleura — Circulatory.  Apparatus  215 

a  procedure  is  necessary  in  examination  for  the  presence  of  scalding  water  in  the 
lungs  of  hogs.  To  deter  nine  the  extensiveness  of  the  aspiration  of  food,  it  is  rec- 
ommended that  during  the  act  of  cutting  the  bronchial  lymph  glands  to  sever 
at  the  same  time  the  principal  bronchus  of  each  side;  as  otherwise  the  aspirated 
food,  which  does  not  extend  into  the  small  bronchi,  cannot  be  seen. 

In  the  judgment  of  these  pollutions  of  the  lungs,  their  extent  should  determine 
the  disposition  of  them.  If  the  aspiration  of  blood  is  only  slight,  and  the  amount  of 
food  and  scalding  water  limited  to  the  trachea  and  large  bronchi,  the  lungs  may  be 
passed  after  a  thorough  cleansing.  In  pronounced  aspirations  of  blood  the  lungs 
should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  In  the  presence  of  food  contents  or  scalding 
water  in  the  deeper  sections  of  bronchial  tubes  the  lungs  should  be  condemned  as 
unfit  for  human  food. 

[Lungs  containing  aspirated  substances,  either  solids  or  liquids,  are 
condemned  in  the  United  States.] 

M,    Pleura 

i.  Petechia  of  the  pleura  may  be  present  in  perfectly  healthy  food 
animals,  as  suffocation  hemorrhages  resulting  from  slaughter  (page  213), 
and  should  not  be  confused  with  hemorrhages  of  septic  origin. 

2.  False   neuromas  in   the   course   of   intercostal   nerves   are  not   infrequently 
observed  in  cattle.     They  are  new   formations  of  myofibromatous  nature,  of  sizes 
ranging  from  that  of  a  pea  to  a  hazelnut — seldom  larger — which  develop  from  the 
nerve    sheaths. 

3.  Relative  to  melanotic  pigmentation  of  the  pleura,  especially  in  calves,  see 
page  200. 

4.  Regarding  secondary  inflammation    of    the    pleura    in    contagious    pleuro- 
pneumonia  of  cattle,  swine  plague,  and  rinderpest,  see  these  respective  diseases. 

Judgment,  see  page  201. 

N,     Circulatory  Apparatus 

1.  Petcchina  on  the  peri-  epi-  and    endocardium    of    food    animals 
are  mostly  the  result  of  asphixiation  at  the  time  of  slaughter,  especially  if 
they  are  present  in  connection  with  the  above-described  hemorrhages  of 
the  pleura   and  with  those  of  the  lung  mentioned  on  page  213;  but  they 
may  also  result  from  sepsis  or  other  acute  infectious  diseases.     Hemor- 
rhages occur  frequently  on  the  auriculo-ventricular  valves. 

Reddened  patches  at  the  level  of  the  columnar  carnse  are  of  systolic  origin  and 
disappear  at  diastole;  they  indicate  a  systolic  pause  of  the  heart. 

2.  Pericarditis  is  most  frequently  observed  as  the  result  of  trauma- 
tism  in  cattle,  due  to  the  pressing  forward  of  sharp  foreign  bodies  in  the 
rumen.     The  degree  and  the  form  of  such  traumatic  pericarditis    may 
yary  extraordinarily;  and  the  judgment,  therefore,  is  influenced  by  the 


216  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

severity  as  well  as  possible  complications  from  disturbances  in  circulation, 
and  from  fever.  In  febrile  conditions  it  has  to  be  always  remembered 
that  traumatic  pericarditis  may  be  of  septic  nature ;  however,  it  must  also 
be  recognized  that  a  pericardial  content  with  offensive  odor  is  not  suffi- 
cient for  the  determination  of  a  diagnosis  of  sepsis  (Chap.  VII,  page  296). 

Besides,  pericarditis  of  serous  and  sero-fibrinous  form  may  be  observed  in  hogs 
as  an  accompanying  symptom  of  swine  plague  (Chap.  VII,  page  304). 

Recovered  forms  of  pericarditis  appear  not  infrequently  as  "villous 
hearts''  in  cattle  and  in  hogs. 

3.  Endocarditis  is  observed  most  frequently  in  hogs  as  a  verrucose 
valvular  form,  and  occurs  principally  as  a  result  of  swine  erysipelas  infec- 
tion. Ulcerous  and  diphtheritic  endocarditis  may  be  of  toxic  or  pyemic 
origin. 

4.  Cystic  formations    (hematoma  and  lymph   cysts)    on  the  auriculo-ventricu- 
lar  valves    were  found  frequently  by  Klaeger  and  Glage  in  calves  and  hogs ;  and 
not  infrequently  by  Fischer  in  cattle. 

5.  Phlebectosis   is  found  in   older  food    animals    as    nodular    dilations    of   the 
veins  in  parts  rich  in  blood-vessels,  principally  in  the  mesenteries. 

6.  The  formation  of  multiple  infarcts  in  the  spleen  as  a  result  of  endocarditis, 
was  first  indicated  by  Ostertag.     The  splenic  infarcts  appear  like  wedge-shaped  or 
round  growths,  at  first   dark  red,  later  yellowish   and  white   in   color.     After  the 
resorption  of  the  necrotic  infarct  areas    there  usually  follows  considerable  shrinking 
of  the  spleen.    The  latter  also  follows  rotation  of  the  spleen. 

7.  Rotation  of  the  spleen  is  a  rarely  occurring  condition  to  which  Glage  has 
called  attention.     The  splenic  tumor  which  develops  as  a  result  of  the  torsion  of 
the  blood  vessels  is  distinguishable  by  absence  of  a  softening1  of  the  pulp. 

Regarding  the  judgment   of   these   diseases   of   the   circulatory   apparatus,    see 
page  201. 

[Carcasses  affected  with  acute  pericarditis  should  be  condemned, 
according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  i8a.  For  judg- 
ment of  other  lesions  of  the  heart  appearing  in  association  with  various 
general  affections,  see  these  respective  diseases.] 

O,     Skin 

1.  Reddening  of  the  skin  is  only  important  from  the  standpoint  of 
differential  diagnosis  in  hogs,  especially  in  connection  with  the  presence 
of  infectious  diseases  of  these  animals  (swine  erysipelas,  etc.). 

2.  Regarding  granular   eruptions    (schrotausschlag)    of   hogs,    see 
Chap.  VII,  page  225. 

3.     The  name  of  "sooty  mange"  is  applied  to  a  pustular  exanthema  of  young 
pigs,  which  leads  to  the  formation   of  pitch-like  scabs    (pitch  mange),  and   occurs 


Central  Nervous  System,  etc.  217 

as  an  accompanying  symptom  of  general  chronic  affections.     The  latter,  and  also 
the  condition  of  the  animal,  determine  the  disposition  of  the  meat. 

P,      Central  Nervous   System 

Of  diseases  of  the  central  nervous  system  there  will  only  be  mentioned  infec- 
tious cerebro-spinal  meningitis  of  horses  (meningitis  cerebrospinalis  enzootica),  as 
it  frequently  occasions  emergency  slaughter.  It  is  generally  without  influence  upon 
the  utilization  of  the  meat,  but  in  cases  of  delayed  slaughter  incomplete  bleeding 
may  be  present.  If  the  disease  is  of  long  standing,  and  is  associated  with  marked 
decubitis  or  other  injuries,  as  well  as  traumatic  pneumonia,  a  certain  amount  of 
caution  is  advisable. 

4.     Diseases  of  the  Blood  and  Constitutional  Diseases 
A.      Anemia  (Oligemia) 

Anemia  appears  in  food  animals  as  symptomatic  or  as  so-called  per- 
nicious anemia. 

1.     Symptomatic  Anemia 

Symptomatic  anemias  are  expressions  of  various  disturbances  in  the 
vegetative  functions  of  the  body,  and  as  etiological  factors  internal  para- 
sites, chronic  intestinal  or  pulmonary  affections,  chronic  cachexia,  and 
tuberculosis  play  the  most  important  part. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — During  life  paleness  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane in  advanced  cases,  dulness,  loss  of  appetite,  and  emaciation  point 
to  anemia;  while  in  the  slaughtered  animal  it  is  observed  only  in 
advanced  cases  by  emaciation  and  slight  coagulation  of  the  blood,  as  well 
as  by  the  pale  appearance  of  the  muscles.  The  presence  of  certain  organic 
affections  indicates  the  cause  of  the  disease. 

Microscopical  examination  of  the  blood  may  show  considerable 
decrease  of  red  blood  corpuscles  (Shaper). 

The  judgment  depends  on  the  primary  affection  which  may  be  pres- 
ent and  on  the  nutritive  condition  of  the  carcass.  As  a  rule,  this  meat 
may  be  passed  for  human  food,  and  only  in  advanced  cases  should  it  be 
declared  of  inferior  quality. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  24,  car- 
casses of  animals  which  are  too  anemic  to  produce  wholesome  meat 
should  be  condemned.  Advanced  cases  of  anemia  are  usually  asso- 
ciated with  pronounced  emaciation.] 

2,     Pernicious  Anemia 

The  essential  primary,  pernicious  or  progressive  anemia  is  a  disease 
which  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  explained;  but  nevertheless,  it  is  of 


218  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

infectious  or  toxic  nature,  almost  entirely  confined  to  horses.     The  dis- 
ease runs  an  acute  or  chronic  course. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — During  life,  in  acute  cases  there  is  intermittent  high 
fever,  with  greatly  increased  frequency  in  pulse,  and  rapid  emaciation  without  any 
indications  of  a  local  affection.  The  red  blood  corpuscles  show  conspicuous  changes 
in  form,  which  is  designated  as  poikilocytosis ;  besides,  there  are  macro-  and  micro- 
cytes  present.  In  chronic  disease  *he  manifestations  are  the  same  as  in  symptomatic 
anemia.  In  slaughtered  animals  the  acute  cases  show  a  cloudy  swelling  and  fatty 
degeneration  of  the  visceral  parenchyma  and  muscles,  with  hemorrhages  in  most 
of  the  organs,  especially  under  the  serous  membranes,  spleen  tumor,  cellular  infiltra- 
tion of  the  bone-marrow,  hemoglobin  infarcts  of  the  kidneys,  without  any  particu- 
lar conspicuous  affection  of  the  organs.  In  a  more  chronic  type  pathological 
changes  are  similar  to  those  of  symptomatic  anemia ;  only  the  bone-marrow  is 
greatly  changed,  appearing  like  raspberry  jelly,  or  as  the  bone-marrow  of  the 
embryonic  state. 

Judgment. — On  account  of  great  emaciation  and  pronounced  changes 
in  the  muscles  and  viscera,  the  meat  should  be  considered  badly  spoiled, 
and,  consequently,  unfit  for  human  consumption.  It  has  not  yet  been 
proven  that  this  meat  is  injurious  to  health. 

B,      Hydrcmia 

The  watery  condition  of  the  blood  of  food  animals,  which  occurs  most 
frequently  in  sheep  and  cattle,  develops  as  a  result  of  insufficient  assimi- 
lation of  nutritive  substances,  or  from  over-abundant  partaking  of  food 
containing  a  large  amount  of  water.  In  the  first  instance  it  produces 
chronic  disturbances  of  the  blood-producing  organs  as  in  anemia,  with 
which  disease  hydremia  is  usually  associated.  Swill  and  sugar-beets  are 
foods  containing  especially  large  amounts  of  water.  The  symptoms  in 
living  animals  depend  on  the  extent  of  the  affection.  Edema  of  depen- 
dent portions  of  the  body  (neck,  brisket,  abdomen,  legs)  is  rarely  absent, 
even  in  the  earliest  stages ;  at  the  same  time  symptoms  of  anemia  are 
apparent.  In  slaughtered  animals  well  pronounced  changes  of  the  blood, 
such  as  noticeable  thinness,  and  slight  coagulability,  are  only  found  in 
advanced  cases.  Furthermore,  there  is  an  edematous  appearance  of  the 
subcutaneous  and  intermuscular  connective  tissue  and  transudates  in  the 
body  cavities.  The  muscles  are  relaxed,  and  rigor  mortis  is  not  well 
marked;  only  in  very  advanced  cases  (cachexia)  are  they  discolored  and 
grayish-red.  In  these  cases  there  is  also  pronounced  atrophy  and  gela- 
tinous infiltration  of  the  fat  tissue. 

Judgment. — In  advanced  hydremia  the  meat  should  be  condemned  as 
unfit  for  human  food,  on  account  of  its  repulsive  changes,  and  its  marked 
emaciation. 


Leukemia  219 

In  less  severe  cases  the  slaughtered  animals  are  allowed  to  hang  for 
24  hours ;  since,  according  to  experience,  a  large  portion  of  the  transu- 
dates  and  edema  of  the  connective  tissue  disappear  by  dripping  and 
evaporation  and  through  its  resorption  by  the  muscle  substance. 

Therefore  in  the  cutting  of  the  carcass  it  becomes  evident  whether 
there  still  remains  a  distinct  watery  condition  of  the  muscles  in  the  deeper 
parts.  If  this  cannot  be  noticed  the  carcass  is  released ;  while,  if  visible, 
the  meat  should  be  sold  after  the  removal  of  the  watery  tissues,  as  inferior 
quality  under  declaration.  In  mild  cases  deterioration  occurs  very  rarely 
from  the  hanging  of  the  carcasses. 

[In  case  hydremia  is  associated  with  emaciation  or  if  the  carcass  mani- 
fests edema  of  the  muscles  and  connective  tissue,  in  consequence  of  that 
condition,  the  carcass  should  be  condemned,  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order 
150,  Regulation  13,  section  24.] 

C     Leukemia 

In  food  animals  cases  of  true  leukemia  are  more  infrequent  than 
pseudo-leukemia,  which,  however,  should  be  distinguished  from  the  for- 
mer, etiologically  and  anatomically. 

To  what  extent  these  diseases  are  of  an  infectious  nature  remains  to 
be  explained. 

1,    True  Leukemia 

This  disease,  which  depends  on  a  marked  and  continuing  increase  of 
white  corpuscles  (leucocytes  and  lymphocytes),  takes  its  origin  from  a 
hyperplasia  of  the  lymphadenoid  tissue — namely  the  spleen,  lymph  glands, 
bone-marrow,  and  also  from  the  intestinal  wall  and  other  organs.  The 
blood  in  this  condition  may  contain  a  large  increase  of  lymphocytes  (leu- 
kemia lymphatics).  On  the  other  hand,  the  leukemia  may  be  due  to  a 
migration  of  leucocytes  from  the  marrow  of  the  bone,  resulting  in  amyelo- 
genic  leukemia.  Accordingly  the  clinical  and  anatomical  picture  of  the 
disease  likewise  varies. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  living  animals  the  suspicion  of  leukemia 
is  only  attracted,  as  a  rule,  in  the  lymphatic  form,  owing  to  enlargement 
of  most  of  the  accessible  lymph  glands.  Besides  there  is  a  dulness  of  the 
animal,  and  a  paleness  of  the  mucous  membranes.  Examination  of  the 
blood  establishes  the  correct  diagnosis.  The  slaughtered  animal  shows 
slightly  coagulable  pale  blood,  the  serum  of  which  may  be  of  a  milky  or 
pus-like  consistence ;  the  coagulum  in  the  heart  and  large  blood-vessels  is 
similar  in  appearance.  There  is  also  hyperplasia  of  the  spleen  and  of  the 
lymph  glands,  which  may  reach  enormous  proportions ;  at  the  same  time 


22O  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

the  lymph  glands  are  frequently  very  soft  and  moist.  The  bone-marrow 
has  either  undergone  a  lymphadenoid  change  to  a  raspberry  jelly  consist- 
ence, or  it  is  like  pus.  Leukemic  infiltrations  or  tumors  may  be  present 
in  any  of  the  organs ;  also  hemorrhages  in  the  kidneys,  serous  and  mucous 
membranes,  as  well  as  in  the  muscles.  The  latter  are  considerably  paler 
than  normal,  gray,  flabby,  and  permeated  with  hemorrhages.  The  char- 
acteristic microscopical  appearance  of  the  blood  cannot  be  discussed  here. 

Judgment. — On  account  of  the  severe  and  pronounced  changes  pres- 
ent the  meat  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food. 

[Carcasses  affected  with  leukemia,  which  is  invariably  associated 
with  a  general  swelling  of  the  lymphatic  glands,  should  be  condemned, 
according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  18  h.l 

2.     Pseudo-leukemia 

This  disease  manifests  the  same  clinical  aspect  in  its  course  as  true 
leukemia.  The  pseudo-leukemia  (Hodgkin's  disease)  is  principally  dis- 
tinguished from  the  latter  through  the  fact  that  the  numerical  proportion 
between  the  leucocytes  and  erythrocytes  of  the  blood  is  not  disturbed. 
Pseudo-leukemic  conditions  occur  occasionally  in  cattle  and  hogs,  but 
rarely  to  such  a  degree  that  the  general  condition  of  the  animal  appears 
greatly  disturbed. 

The  anatomical  lesions  do  not  differ  from  those  of  leukemia ;  Haffner 
found  lymphoid  areas  in  the  entire  muscular  system  of  a  cow,  in  the  form 
of  grayish  spots.  Regarding  the  judgment,  carcasses  showing  pseudo- 
leukemia  should  be  treated  like  those  with  true  leukemia. 

D,     Rhachitis 

Rhachitis,  which  appears  most  frequently  in  young  hogs,  depends  on 
an  insufficient  calcification  of  the  periosteal  tissues,  and  on  the  irregular 
ossification  of  the  cartilage,  whereby  excessive  proliferation  of  cartilagin- 
ous and  periosteal  tissue  takes  place  (Kitt). 

The  clinical  findings  that  are  of  interest  here  are  the  enlargements  of 
the  bones,  especially  on  the  epiphyses  and  cartilages  of  the  ribs,  the  bend- 
ing of  the  extremities,  and  of  the  vertebral  column,  as  well  as  the 
enlargements  of  the  nose  and  superior  and  inferior  maxillary  bones 
(snuffle  disease),  which  may  be  observed  in  hogs.  The  manifestations  in 
the  slaughtered  animal  correspond  to  the  clinical  findings  and  to  the  stage 
of  the  disease.  In  advanced  cases  lesions  of  severe  nutritive  disturbances 
and  of  cachexia  may  be  present  in  the  meat. 

Judgment. — In  the  beginning  of  rhachitis,  accompanied  by  good 
i  utritive  conditions,  there  is  no  ground  for  condemnation.  When  the 


Osteomalacia  22 1 

disease  is  of  medium  degree  with  pronounced  changes  of  the  bones  in 
addition  to  those  affecting  the  bones  of  the  head,  the  meat  is  considered 
of  inferior  quality.  Condemnation  becomes  necessary  .in  very  rare  cases 
with  cachectic  changes  of  the  muscles,  and  considerable  emaciation. 

[Carcasses  affected  with  rhachitis  in  an  advanced  degree  should  be 
condemned,  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  22.] 

E.     Osteomalacia 

This  brittle  condition  of  the  bones,  with  liquid  marrow  called  osteo- 
psathyrosis,  is  a  softening  of  the  bones  of  mature  animals,  as  a  result  of  a 
diminution  of  the  lime  contents  and  a  partial  transformation  of  the  bone 
into  an  osteoid  mass  (Kitt).  Klimmer  and  Schmidt  designate  this  disease, 
which  occurs  most  frequently  in  cattle,  as  a  halisteresis  ossium,  and  con- 
sider rhachitis  and  Osteomalacia  as  identical  in  their  nature. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Of  the  clinical  manifestations,  the  most 
marked  is  the  occurence  of  bone  fractures  (fractures  of  ribs  and  pelvis), 
without  any  corresponding  cause  being  apparent.  With  this  condition  are 
also  associated  nutritive  disturbances,  swellings  of  the  joints,  and  painful 
gait ;  later  emaciation,  hardened  skin,  and  cachexia.  The  slaughtered  ani- 
mals show  hyperemia  of  the  diseased  bones,  thinning  of  the  hard  outer 
part ;  softening  of  the  bone  substances,  and  even  its  transformation  into  a 
fibrous  tissue ;  transformation  of  the  marrow  of  the  bones  into  a  dark- 
yellow  to  dark-red  jelly-like  mass;  bone  fractures;  peeling  off  of  the  peri- 
osteum, and  the  wearing  away  of  the  joint.  Although  pronounced  changes 
of  the  meat  appear  usually  only  in  cachexic  conditions,  occasionally  they 
may  be  observed  earlier,  according  to  Klimmer  and  Schmidt.  On  account 
of  physical  changes  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels,  marked  serous  infil- 
trations of  the  bordering  tissues  develop,  the  muscles  become  flabby, 
watery,  and,  as  a  rule,  darker  and  softer;  their  reaction  is  generally  alka- 
line. The  fat  tissue  appears  atrophied  in  the  later  stages.  The  preserva- 
tive quality  of  the  meat  is  poor. 

Judgment. — According  to  the  observations  of  Klimmer  and  Schmidt, 
animals  affected  with  Osteomalacia  ought  only  rarely  to  be  passed  without 
restriction.  They  recommend  judging  meat,  finally,  24  hours  after 
slaughter.  Then  if  emaciation  and  slight  changes  in  the  meat  are  present, 
the  animal  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  If  pronounced  changes, 
and  especially  cachectic  conditions  are  noticeable,  the  judgment  must  be 
made  for  total  condemnation. 

[Carcasses  showing  pronounced  changes  of  Osteomalacia  should  be 
condemned,  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150  Regulation  13,  section  22.1 

F.     Sarcomatosis  and  carcinomatosis,  which  also  belong  here,  have  been  men- 
tioned on  page  200. 


222  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

G.  Cholemia,  uremia,  and  hemoglobinemia,  which  frequently  are  classified  with 
affections  of  the  blood,  will  be  discussed  with  auto-intoxications  (Chap.  VII,  j). 
Hemoglobinemia  will  also  be  referred  to,  under  diseases  of  invasion  (page  254). 

5,     Diseases  of  Invasion 

The  diseases  of  food  animals  caused  by  animal  parasites — the  dis- 
eases of  invasion — are  either  of  purely  local  nature  (diseases  of  organs), 
or  they  appear  on  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  may,  therefore,  be  desig- 
nated as  general  parasitic  affections.  According  to  their  importance  in 
meat  inspection,  the  animal  parasites  of  food-producing  animals  may  be 
classified  in  the  following  three  groups : 

(a)  Parasites  which  are  not  injurious  to  man. — To  this  class  belong 
all  parasites  represented  on  pages  222-234  (with  the  exception  of  pentas- 
tomum  taenioides),  and    those   protozoa   which   excite    general   parasitic 
affections. 

(b)  Parasites  which  only  indirectly  may  become  injurious  to  man. — 
Echinococci  and  pentastomes. 

(c)  Parasites  which  are  transmissible  to  man  by  the  ingest  ion  of 
meat. — Measles  and  trichinae. 

A,      Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs 

The  parasites  of  organs  described  below  may  all  be  united  in  as  far  as 
the  judgment  in  meat  inspection  is  concerned.  As  has  been  stated,  they 
are  not  transmissible  to  man.  The  organs  invaded  by  the  parasites  should 
be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food  in  all  those  cases  where  the  para- 
sites are  not  removed  in  the  commercial  preparations  of  the  parts  (intes- 
tines), or  if  the  organ  in  all  of  its  portions  contains  parasites,  or  their 
presence  gives  to  the  organ  a  repulsive  appearance.  If  the  latter  are  con- 
fined, or  the  parasites  invade  only  single  sections  of  an  organ,  then  only 
the  changed  parts  should  be  condemned. 

1.     Parasites  of  the  Skin 
(a)     Hypo  derma  Larva 

The  larvae  of  the  Hypoderma  bovis  (oestrus  bovis)  gad-fly,  develop 
in  the  subcutis  of  cattle. 

Development.— The  gad-fly  deposits  its  sticky  eggs  on  the  skin  of  cattle,  where 
they  undergo  the  first  process  of  development,  and  through  licking  are  brought  into 
the  mouth.  Very  soon  (June),  according  to  Koorevaar,  transparent  larvae,  2-4  mm. 
long,  are  found  in  the  wall  of  the  esophagus,  from  whence  they  migrate  partly  to 


Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs  223 

the  snbcutis,  but  usually  toward  the  vertebral  canal  (Hinrichsen,  Ruser,  Koorevaar), 
in  order  to  further  develop  in  the  dural  fat  tissue,  and  later  to  proceed  to  the  sub- 
cutis.  There  the}-  grow  until  the  ninth  month  after  the  invasion  to  the  length  of 
28  mm.  and  12-15  nim.  in  breadth.  They  are  backish-brown,  roller-shaped  larvae, 
which  begin  in  April  to  migrate  to  the  outside  by  breaking  through  the  skin,  in 
order  that  they  may  change  into  pupae  in  the  ground. 

Lesions. — ''Warbles,"  or  "gad  boils'"  are  flat,  nodular  elevations  of  the 
skin,  especially  along  the  back,  from  which,  under  certain  conditions,  larvae 
surrounded  by  pus  may  be  squeezed  out.  After  the  skin  is  removed,  dirty, 
greenish-yellow,  suppurative  areas  are  found  in  the  subcutis,  with  edema- 
tous  infiltration  of  the  surrounding  parts,  extending  even  into  the  muscles. 
The  latter  may  also  be  found  invaded  by  dirty,  greenish  larval  passages. 

i.  Psoroptes  ovis  (sucking  mite,  Fig.  88)  produces  the  skin  eruption 
organs,  see  the  above. 

(b)     Scabies  Mites 

1.  Psoroptes  ovis  (sucking  mite,  Fig.  88)  produces  the  skin  eruption 
designated  as  sheep  scabies,  which  affects  the  woolly  parts  of  the  body, 
and  begins  mostly  at  the  sacral  region. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Loosening  of  the  wool,  which  extends  over 
the  surface  of  the  body  in  various  places,  leaving  vesicles  and  pustules  on 
the  skin ;  later  scabs  with  sticking  together  of  the  wool,  thickening  of  the 
skin,  formation  of  folds  and  fissures,  itching,  especially  when  warm.  In 
extensive  affections  emaciation,  anemia,  and  cachexia  are  present. 

Cases  of  psoroptic  scabies  of  sheep  and  horses,  as  well  as  sarcoptic  scabies  of 
horses,  must  be  reported  to  the  police  authorities,  according  to  the  Imperial  law  on 
Infectious  Diseases. 

[The  movement  of  scabies  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  United  States  is 
restricted  by  the  existing  regulations  which  prohibit  the  shipment  of 
affected  and  exposed  animals  unless  they  are  destined  for  immediate 
slaughter.] 

2.  Sarcoptes  equi  (S.  scabiei  communis)  produces  scabies  of  horses, 
which   commences   with   slight   granular  elevations   and  papules  on  the 
thickly-haired  protected  portions  of  the    skin,    and    progressing   leads    to 
serous  exudates,  scabs,  and  scab  formations.     In  advanced  cases   hairless 
spots,  thickened  skin,  pustules  and  flat  swellings  may  develop ;  also  emacia- 
tion may  appear.    Itching  is  generally  well  marked. 

3.  Demodex  phylloides  (demode.v  folliculornui  sitis) —  the  hair-fol- 
licle mite  of  hogs — produces  nodules  and  pustules  of  sizes  frequently  rang- 
ing from  a  millet  seed  to  that  of  a  hazelnut.  This  not  infrequent  acne  erup- 
tion appears  on  the  snout,  neck,  pectoral  region,  abdomen,  the  inner  sur- 


224  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

face  of  the  thighs  and  flanks,  and  is  manifested  by  grayish  or  yellowish- 
gray  pustules,  as  well  as  by  being  sharply  defined  from  the  neighboring 
parts  (Ostertag). 

4.  Dcmodcx  folliculorum  canis  causes  the  demodex  mange,  which 
occurs  frequently  in  dogs,  where  it  invariably  appears  locally  on  the  face, 
the  pectoral  region,  and  on  the  paws,  but  may  also  extend  over  the  entire 


Fig.  88 

Fig.  88.  Male  of  dermato- 
coptes  communis,  viewed  from 
the  abdominal  side.  x  50 
diameters.  (After  Ziegler). 

Fig.  89.  Sarcoptes  scabiei  v 
equi.  Above  to  the  left,  male ; 
below,  dorsal  view  of  female ; 
above  to  the  right,  female ;  be- 
low, ventral  side  of  male,  x 
75  diameters.  (After  Hutyra- 
Marek). 


Fig.  89 


skin  and  result  in  emaciation.  Characteristic  lesions  are  the  red  and 
bluish-red  papules  and  pustules,  from  which  a  sero-purulent  bloody  fluid 
may  be  squeezed  out. 

5.  Sarcoptes  canis  produces  sarcoptic  mange,  frequently  affecting 
dogs.  It  appears  principally  on  the  head,  but  is  found  on  other  parts  of 
the  body ;  also  it  is  manifested  as  red  spots,  later  by  nodules  and  vesicles 
with  exudates  and  scab  formations,  loss  of  hair  and  emaciation  in  exten- 
sive cases. 


The  other  forms  of  scabies  in  food  animals  are :  The  dermatocoptes  and  der- 
matophagus  scabies  of  horses  and  cattle ;  the  sarcoptes  and  dermatophagus  scabies  in 
sheep  and  goats  and  the  sarcoptes  scabies  of  hogs.  With  the  exception  of  the  der- 
matocoptes scabies  of  the  horse,  they  are  of  no  importance  in  meat  inspection  or  to 
veterinary  police  supervision. 


Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs  225 

[According  to  B1.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  16,  carcasses 
showing  advanced  lesions  of  scabies  associated  with  emaciation,  or  if  the 
inflammation  extends  to  the  flesh,  should  be  condemned.  In  mild  cases 
the  carcasses  are  passed  for  food.] 

On  calves  there  are  occasionally  found  immense  numbers  of  lice  (haemato- 
pines)  ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  their  crawling  on  the  meat,  it  is  advisable  to  have 
the  skin  removed  immediately  after  slaughter. 

(c)   Coccida 

Coccidium  fuscum,  which  was  discovered  by  Olt,  is  the  cause  of  coc- 
cidiosis  cutis,  spiradenitis  coccidiosa,  in  the  granular  eruptions  of  hogs. 
These  protozoa,  the  classification  of  which  as  coccidia  is  disputed  by  Liihe, 
penetrate  into  the  sweat  glands  and  produce  chronic  inflammation  in  the 
same  with  a  damming  up  of  the  secretion. 

Lesions. — On  various  parts  of  the  skin  pale  bluish-gray,  lead-gray, 
or  yellowish-brown  nodules  develop,  of  sizes  ranging  from  a  pin-head  to 
the  double  size  of  a  pea.  They  are  semi  solid,  lying  very  superficially  in 
the  skin,  contain  a  cloudy,  watery  or  bloody  smeary  mass,  and  sometimes 
rolled-up  hair. 

A  disturbance  in  the  general  health  is  not  connected  with  this 
eruption. 

2.     Parasites  of  the  Respiratory  Apparatus 
(a)     (Estrus  Larvce 

The  larvae  of  the  gad-fly  of  sheep  (oestrus  ovis)  invade  the  nose  and 
sinuses  of  the  sheep. 

Development. — The  fly  deposits  eggs  or  already  partially  developed  larvae  on 
or  into  the  openings  of  the  nose  of  sheep,  from  whence  they  migrate  into  the  nasal, 
frontal,  and  maxillary  sinuses  as  well  as  into  the  cones  of  the  horns,  and  there 
develop  within  nine  months  into  yellowish-brown  larvae,  20  to  30  mm.  in  length. 
They  are  expelled  to  the  outside  by  sneezing,  blowing,  shaking  (shaking  disease), 
and  burrow  into  the  ground  where  they  change  into  a  chrysalis  stage. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Catarrh  of  the  respective  mucous  mem- 
branes, mucopurulent  nasal  discharges,  shaking,  sneezing,  brain  irrita- 
tions ;  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane  with  hemorrhages  and  loss  of 
substance ;  finally  the  presence  of  larvae  which  are  enveloped  in  pus  and 
mucus  and  which  may  become  fetid. 
16 


226  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

(b)     Pentastomcs 

The  Pentastomttm  tsenioides,  which  resemble  the  tapeworm,  infests  the  nasal 
cavities  and  sinuses  of  dogs  and  men,  and  produces  only  slight  catarrhal  disturb- 
ances. These  parasites,  which  belong  to  the  arachnoids,  are  from  15-20  mm.  long 
(male),  and  80-90  mm.  long  (female). 

^  For  the  verterinary  inspector  the  only  parasite  that  is  of  importance  on  account 
<of  its  larval  condition  is  the  pentastomum  denticulatum.  This  develops  from  the 
•eggs  of  the  P.  taenioides,  which  reach  the  outside  with  the  nasal  mucus,  and  are 
'.then  taken  up  by  herbivorous  animals.  There  the  embryos  are  set  free  in  the 
digestive  apparatus,  and  reach  either  actively  or  passively  the  mesenteric  glands, 
liver,  lungs,  or  peritoneum,  where  they  become  encapsulated  and  form  cysts. 

(c)     Parasites  of  the  Lungs 

1.  Strongylus  paradoxus. — This  strange  palisade  worm  occurs  very 
frequently  in  the  lungs  of  both  domesticated  and  wild  hogs,  but  according 
to  Miiller,  only  in  young  animals.     The  males  are   16-20  mm.  and  the 
females  40  mm.  long,  and  they  live  in  the  trachea  and  bronchi,  where  they 
produce  only  slight  catarrhal  disturbances.     Lungs  affected  at  the  places 
invaded  by  a  large  number  of  these  worms  have  elevated,  flat,  dense  areas, 
with  a  mother-of-pearl  luster. 

As  the  latter  indications  may  be  absent  in  spite  of  the  presence  of  the  para- 
sites, it  is  advisable  to  cut  into  every  hog  lung  posteriorly.  If  worms  can  be 
squeezed  out  of  the  cut  surface,  another  cut  is  then  made  a  few  centimeters  ante- 
riorly, and  if  parasites  are  also  found  there  the  center  of  the  lung  may  then  be  con- 
sidered infested. 

2.  Strongylus  filaria,  the  thread  worm  of  the  lung,  lives  in  the  bron- 
chi of  sheep,  goats,  deer,  and  roe,  where  it  produces  catarrh  and  pneumo- 
nia.   In  sheep  it  occasionally  occurs  in  such  immense  numbers  and  exten- 
siveness  that  entire  flocks  become  infested  with  it,  and  a  large  number  of 
sheep  succumb  from  pneumonia  and  cachexia  (lung- worm  plague).     The 
findings  are  similar  to  those  for  the  previously  described  parasite.     The 
males  are  25  and  the  females  84  mm.  long. 

3.  Strongylus  ovis  pulmonalis  (lung  hair-worm),  10-30  mm.  long, 
lives  as  reddish-brown  parasites  in  sheep,  goats,  deer,  and  chamois.     It 
produces  in  the  lungs  small  yellowish  or  greenish-gray  hard  nodules  or 
wedge-shaped  areas.    In  cutting  into  these  places  caseous,  gray,  crumbling 
masses  are  found,  which  contain  eggs,  embryos,  and  dead  parasites. 

4.  Strongylus  micrurus  is  found  comparatively  seldom  in  the  lungs 
of   cattle   and   calves.     It  also  occurs   in   deer,   roe,   and   horses.      The 
30-40  mm.  long  male  and  60-80  mm.  long  female  parasite  are  recognized 
through  the  mother-of-pearl  luster  of  the  hard  lobuli,  and  occur  preferably 


Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs 


227 


at  the  base  of  the  lung,  where  the  parasites  are  lodged  in  the  dilated  bron- 
chi. Occasionally  dead  parasites  may  be  found  in  greenish-colored  nodules 
(Ostertag). 

5.  Strongylus  commutatus  occurs  rarely  in  the  lungs  of  sheep  and 
goats,  but  more  frequently  in  hares  and  rabbits.  The  30  to  70  mm.  long 
worm  produces  in  the  lung  tissue  proper  inflammatory  areas  of  sizes  from 
that  of  a  hemp  seed  to  a  hazelnut,  which  have  a  yellow  caseous  content. 
Occasionally  the  parasite  produces  enzootic  losses  in  rabbits. 

According  to  Schlegel,  the  Strongylus  commutatus  is  comparatively  frequent  in 
sheep,  and  is  also  the  most  harmful  lung-worm  of  this  species.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  always  present  in  the  dark-brown  to  black  or  violet-red  nodules  of  the  lungs 
of  sheep. 

3.     Parasites  of  the  Digestive  Apparatus 

(a)  Gastrus  Larva 

i.     The  larvae  of  Gastrophilus  equ  the  stomach  bot  of  the  horse, 
live  as  18-20  mm.  long,  roll-shaped,  yellowish,  meat-colored  bodies  on  the 
cardiac    portion    of    the    mucosa 
of    the    horse's    stomach.      Occa- 
sionally   they    also    occur    in    the 
dog  (Fig.  90). 

The  gad-fly  lays  eggs  I  mm.  long  on 
the  hair  of  the  horse,  where,  within  3-5 
days,  the  worms  slip  out  of  the  eggs. 
They  are  then  licked  off,  reach  the 
stomach,  burrow  themselves  into  the 
mucous  membrane,  and  are  developed 
after  9-10  months  into  full-grown  larvae, 
which  are  ejected  with  the  feces. 

2.  The  larvae  of  the  Gastrophilus 
hsemorrhoidalis  of  the  horse  are  more 
slender  than  the  former,  and  of  a 
lighter  red  color. 

3.  Larvae  of  the  Gastrophilus  duodenalis  occur  in  the  pyloric  portion  of  the 
stomach  of  the  horse.  They  are  whitish-yellow  in  color,  and  measure  13-15  mm.  in 
length. 

(b)  Round  Worms 

i.  Strongylus  contortus,  the  contorted  palisade  worm,  lives  in  the 
abomasum  of  sheep,  and  goats ;  seldom  in  young  cattle.  The  reddish- white 
worms  are  16-20  mm.  long.  The  blood-sucking  parasite  produces,  through 
heavy  infestations,  anemia  and  cachexia.  If  they  appear  extensively  in 
a  flock  of  sheep,  it  is  spoken  of  as  stomach-worm  epizootic  of  sheep. 


Fig.  90.  Gastrophilus  equi,  a,  male  fly; 
b,  larva   (after  Ziegler). 


228 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


2.  Strongylus  Ostertagi  (S.  convolutus),  conglomerated  palisade 
worm,  lives  frequently  in  the  abomasum  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats.  The 
location  of  the  7-13  mm.  long  worms,  which  lie  under  the  epithelia  of  the 
mucous  membranes,  are  indicated  as  round  elevated  spots  the  size  of  lentils, 
and  with  a  central  opening.  The  presence  of  large  numbers  of  these 
parasites  may  result  in  emaciation. 

Strongylus  convolutus  as  well  as  various  other  strongylidae,  according  to 
Schnyder,  are  the  ca«se  of  chronic  diarrhea  in  cattle  in  Switzerland,  which  is  desig- 
nated as  ' '  kalkbrandigkeit. ' ' 

3.  Strongylus  rubidus  was  the  cause  of  a  severe  affection  in  hogs,  observed  by 
Oppermann,   consisting  of  a  diphtheritic  or  chronic  inflammatory  affection  of  the 
gastric  mucous  membrane,  which  resulted  in  severe  anemia  to  the  sucking  mother 

pig- 

4.  Trichocephalus   affinis,    which   generally   occurs   only   in   cattle,    sheep,    and 
goats,  was  found  by  Meyer  in  large  masses  in  the  large  intestines  of  a  hog.  T.  cre- 
natus  was  also  found  by  Haase   (Heine). 

5.  Oxyuris  curvula  Rud.,  and  Oxyuris  mastigodes,  Nitsche,  occur  in  the  large 
intestines  of  the  horse,   according  to  Jerke. 

6.  Sclerostomum  quadridentatum    (Sticker),  edentatum    (Looss)    and  bidenta- 
tum  (Sticker),  formerly  known  as  Strongylus  armatus,  inhabit  the  large  intestines 

of  horses,  and  their  embryos  produce  aneurisms  (of  the  ab- 
dominal blood  vessels). 

7.  Spiroptera  sanguinolenta,  the  blood-sucking,  coiled-tail 
parasite  which  lives  in  minute  cavities  under  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  esophagus  and  stomach  of  dogs. 

8.  Ascaris      megalocephala,    the    large-headed     stomach- 
worm  which  is  most  frequently  found  in  the  small  intestines 
of  horses,  and 

9.  Ascaris  lumbricoides  of  cattle   and  hogs.     In  cases   of 
heavy  infestations  of  ascarides  in  the  intestines  of  calves 
and  sheep  there  will  be  noticed  an  abnormally  stale,  sourish 
odor  and  flavor  of  the  meat   (Morat,  Laubion,  Leibender, 
Vallisnieri,  Mathis). 

10.  Larvae    of     Ankylostomum     radiatum     (Schneider) 
(=Dochmius,  Strongylus,  Uncinaria),  which  infest  the  small 
intestine  and  cecum  of  European  cattle  and  sheep,  are,  ac- 
cording to  'Scheben,   the  cause   of  helminthiasis   nodularis 
intestinalis,   also   called   nodular   disease   of   the   intestines. 
In  the  intestines  of  American  cattle  and  of  American  and 
Australian  sheep,  the  Ankylostomum  Strose  and  Oesophag- 
ostomum  Curtice  are  present  as  the  cause  of  the  formation 
of  intestinal  nodules. 

11.  Gnathostoma  hispidum    (Cheiranthus  hispidus),   the 
three-colored  stomach-worm,  lives   on   the  blood   from   the" 
mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  of  hogs.     This  parasite, 
which  is  2  to  3  cm.  long,  has     a    spherical    head    which    is 

separated  by  a  deep  furrow  from  the  remainder  of  the  body. 

12.  Echinorynchus  gigas,  the  giant  worm,  is  from  7  to  9  cm.  (males),  and 
30  to  40  cm.  (females)  long,  and  inhabits  the  -small  intestine  of  hogs.  At  the 


Fig.  92 


Fig.  91 

Fig.  91.  Full-grown 
taenia  echinococcus.  x 
12  diameters  (after 
Ziegler). 

Fig.  92.  Head  of 
the  bothriocephalus 
lattis  (Bremser)  en- 
larged (after  Heller ). 


Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs  229 

point  of   attachment   it   produces  a  circumscribed   inflammatory  nodule  and    small 
abscesses  which  may  then  be  easily  mistaken  for  a  tuberculous  nodule. 
For  the  discussion  of  trichinae  in  the  intestines,  see  page  245. 

(c)     Flat  Worms 

i.  Tgenia  (Moniezia)  expansa  produces  the  most  important  and  fre- 
quent tapeworm  disease  of  sheep,  and  in  young  animals  causes  emacia- 
tion, diarrhea,  cachetic  anemia,  followed  by  death.  It  also  occurs  in  cat- 
tle and  is  from  2  to  6  m.  in  length. 

Recently  there  have  been  various  distinct  species  separated  from  the  principal 
species,  Taenia  expansa.  The  cysticercus  stage  of  this  parasite  lives  probably  in  the 
so-called  sheep  tick  (Melophagus  ovinus). 

Of  the  remaining  flat  worms  found  in  food-producing  animals  may  be  men- 
tioned the  following: 

2.  T.  denticulata  of  cattle  and  sheep,  cysticercus    unknown,  25-80  cm.,  some- 
times 150  cm.  long. 

3.  T.   (Anoplocephala)  perfoliata  of  horses,  3-5  cm.  long. 
.{.     T.  (Anoplocephala)   plicata  of  horses,  10-25  cm.  long. 

5.  T.   (Anoplocephala)  mamillana  of  horses,  1-3  cm.  long. 
In  dogs  are  found: 

6.  T.  marginata,  1^2-2  m.  long,  which  is  the  adult  of  cysticercus  tenuicollis  of 
sheep,  hogs,  and  cattle. 

7.  T.  serrata,    l/2-i    m.    long,    which    i*    the    adult    of   cysticercus    pisiformis 
of  hares. 

8.  T.  coenurus,   40-60  cm.    long,   which   is   the   adult    of    coenurus    cerebralis 
of  sheep. 

9.  T.  cucumerina  (Dipylidium  caninum)   10-40  cm.  long.     Its  cysticercus  stage 
is   in   the   dog   louse    (Trichodectes   canus   latus),   and    in    the    dog    flea     (Pulex 
serraticeps). 

10.  T.  echinococcus,  3-4  mm.  long,  which  has  its  origin  from  either  the  Echi- 
nococcus  unilocularis  or  E.  multilocularis  (page  235)  of  ruminants  and  hogs  (Fig.  91). 

11.  Bithriocephalus  latus,  the  larval  stages  of  which  are  found  in  the  muscles  of 
pike,  perch,  eel,  pout,  grayling,  and  trout   (Fig.  92). 

Recent  investigations  (Vaullegeard)  appear  to  establish  the  fact  that  heavy 
parasitic  infestations  occasion  the  production  of  toxin-like  poisonous  products  in 
the  intestines. 

(d)     Flukes 

i.  Distouiuui  hepaticum  s.  Fasciola  hepatica  L.,  the  large  distoma, 
occurs  in  the  bile  ducts  of  the  liver  of  cattle,  sheep,  goafs,  hogs  (very 
rarely),  and  deer.  Distoma  or  their  remains  may  occasionally  be  found  in 
the  lungs,  spleeti,  heart,  subcutis,  muscles,  and  beneath  the  serous 
membranes. 

This  leaf-shaped  worm  is  2040  mm.  long  and  12-15  mm-  broad  at  its 
widest  portion.  Its  color  is  muddy-yellow  to  greenish-brown.  It  has  an 
oral  and  ventral  sucker  and  its  cuticula  bears  scale-like  thorns  (Fig.  93). 


230 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


The  invasion  of  the  distoma  occurs  in  the  larval  state  (Cercaria),  which 
develops  in  small  water  snails  (Limnaus  minutus  and  L.  pereger}  and  is  ingested 
with  food  or  water.  In  the  intestines  the  Cercaria  burst  their  cyst-wall  and  wander 

through  the  ductus  choledochus  into  the  liver;  some 
may  also  reach  this  destination  upon  penetrating  an 
intestinal  vein,  whereupon  they  are  transmitted  by  the 
portal  circulation.  They  develop  in  the  bile  ducts  of 
the  liver,  become  sexually  mature,  and  with  the  bile 
enter  the  intestinal  canal,  to  be  discharged  with  the 
feces. 


The  lesions  in  the  liver  depend  on  the  in- 
tensity and  duration  of  invasion.  If  the  latter 
is  recent  (3  weeks)  and  heavy,  symptoms  of 
acute  inflammation  of  the  liver  may  be  ob- 
served. Occasionally  hemorrhages  of  the  liver 
may  also  occur.  Later,  we  find  changes  in  the 
bile  ducts  ranging  from  simple  catarrh  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  bile  ducts  to  a 
chronic  hyperplastic  inflammation  of  their 
walls  with  considerable  hypertrophy  and  cal- 
careous incrustations.  Either  synchronously 
or  following  this  there  may  develop  a  chronic 
interstitial  hepatitis  with  indurations  and  con- 
tractions (hypertrophic  cirrhosis  of  the  liver). 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  liver  tissue  itself 
remains  unchanged.  Occasionally  one  may 
find  suppurative  cysts,  in  which  living  or  dead 
flukes  reside,  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  liver 
communicating  with  the  bile  ducts. 


Fig-  93-  Distomum  he- 
paticum  with  male  and  fe- 
male sexual  organs  (after 
Leuckart).  x  3.2  diame- 
ters. 


Jaeger  attributes  the  action  of  the  distomes  on  the  tissue  of  the  liver  to  their 
toxic  products  of  metabolism. 

While  the  general  condition  of  other  animals  is  not  visibly  disturbed 
by  invasion  of  the  liver  fluke,  as  a  rule  a  severe  and  extensive  occurrence 
of  the  disease  in  sheep  (liver  fluke  pest  or  rot)  occasions  serious  losses  by 
producing  digestive  disturbances,  icterus,  anemia,  and  cachexia. 

Examination. — Expression  of  the  bile  ducts,  incisions  into  the  liver, 
so  as  to  strike  the  main  ducts ;  for  instance,  on  the  stomach  surface  of  the 
liver  of  cattle,  to  the  left  of  the  porta  and  at  the  base  of  the  Lobus 
Spigelius. 

2.  Distomum  lanceolatum  s.  Fasciola  lanceolata,  the  lancet-shaped 
fluke  occurs  most  commonly  in  the  liver  of  sheep,  more  rarely  in  cattle, 
hogs,  rabbits,  hares,  and  also  in  man. 


Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs 


231 


The  worm  attains  a  length  of  only  4-9  mm.,  and  a  width  of  1-2.5  mm- 
(Fig.  94).  Its  anterior  portion  is  quite  motile,  and  stained  black  in  parts. 
Its  invasion  occurs  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  preceding. 

This  liver  fluke  may  also  infest  whole  herds  and  produce  numerous 
deaths,  as  Roemer  observed  in  goats. 

Findings  and  examination. — The  parasite  occasions  only  slight  catar- 
rhal  changes  in  the  bile  ducts,  and  its  presence  is  frequently  not  discern- 
ible at  the  surface  of  the  liver.  They  are,  therefore,  found  only  on  inci- 
sion of  the  bile  ducts  where  they  are  frequently  present  in  large  numbers. 

The  judgment  of  distomatosis  depends  on  the  number  of  flukes  and 
the  probable  changes  in  the  liver.    If  the  latter  are  absent,  or  restricted  to 
the  large  bile  ducts  and  the  distomes  confined  to  these,  they  may  be 
entirely  removed  by  careful  dissection  of  the  bile 
ducts,  and  the  remaining  tissue  of  the  liver  utilized. 
If,  however,  the  flukes    are    also    present    in    the 
smaller  bile  passages,  or  if  severe  indurative  or  sup- 
purative  processes  are  present,  the  whole  organ  is 
then  confiscated  and  destroyed. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13, 
section  23,  if  the  liver  shows  an  infestation  with 
flukes,  it  should  be  condemned.] 

3.     Paramphistomum     conicum,     nine-pin-shaped     fluke 
(Endloch),  occurs  as  a  4-12  mm.  long,  1-3  mm.  thick,  red-        rf 
dish-white  worm  on  the  mucosa   of  the   first   and   second 
stomachs  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,   deer,   and   buffalo.     It  is 
rare  in  Germany  and  of  no  importance  whatever. 

(e)     Protozoa 


i.  Coccidium  zurnii  is  of  interest,  as  it  causes  the  red 
diarrhea  of  cattle  (Dysenteria  hemorrhagica  coccidiosa 
Hess).  The  oval  or  spherical  unicellular  coccidia  belong 
to  the  Sporozoa  and  inhabit  the  epithelium  of  the  intesti- 
nal mucosa,  producing  severe  inflammatory  processes. 

The  symptoms  in  the  living  animal  may  be  summarized 
as  a  usually  acute  diarrhea,  mixed  with  blood  and  accom- 
panied by  a  general  febrile  condition.  In  the  slaughtered 
animal  is  found  severe  inflammation  of  the  intestines, 
with  blood-red  intestinal  contents. 

In  the  judgment  of  such  cattle  the  meat  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  dangerous  to  health,  yet  on  account  of  the  ex- 
isting severe  general  disturbance  its  value  is  impaired.  In 
very  severe  cases  where  the  animals  are  greatly  emaciated, 
the  meat  will  sometimes  be  found  unfit  for  human  food. 

2.     The  Coccidium  oviforme  (Fig.  95)  inhabits  the  epithelium  of  the  bile  ducts 
cf  the   rabbit  liver,   and  produces  abscess-like  nodules  and  cysts. 


Fig.  04.  Distomum 
lanceolatum  (after 
Hertwig)  s',  oral 
sucker  and  entrance 
to  the  fork-shaped 
intestine,  s",  ventral 
sucker ;  h,  testicle 
with  vasa  deferentia; 
c,  cirrus;  u,  uterus; 
o,  ovarium;  /,  canal 
of  Laurer  and  yolk 
gland ;  d,  shell 
glands ;  w,  excretory 
vessel ;  g,  ganglion. 
x  8  diameters. 


232  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

3.  Coccidium  perforans,  which  is  also  parasitic  in  the  intestinal  epithelia  of 
rabbits,  produces  profuse  diarrhea.     It  is  said  to  occur  also  in  the  intestinal  epi- 
thelia of  sheep  and  calves. 

4.  Coccidium  fuscum  occasions  the  shot-like  skin  eruptions  (Schrotausschlagj 
of  the  hog. 

4,     Parasites  of   the  Pleura  and  Peritoneum 

(a)    Cysticercus  tenuicollis 

The  slender-necked  bladder  worm  is  a  frequent  parasite  of  hogs  ancj 
ruminants,  particularly  of  sheep.  It  is  frequently  found  on  and  beneath  the 
serous  membranes,  especially  of  the  omentum,  mesentery,  and  liver  in  the 
form  of  flabby  bladders,  or  vesicles,  filled  with  serous  fluid,  ranging  from 
a  pea  to  a  man's  fist  in  size.  Occasionally  the  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  has 
been  encountered  in  the  lung  tissue  of  the  hog.  In  a  fully  grown  state 
the  bladders  are  connected  by  a  long,  thin  neck,  with  a  scolex,  from  which 
develops  the  Tcenia  marginata  of  the  dog,  after  a  change  of  host.  The 
scolex  contains  four  suckers  and  a  double  crown  of  32-40  hooks. 

Extensive  peritonitis  is  sometimes  produced  in  hogs  in  cases  of  heavy 
invasion  of  the  parasites  beneath  the  folds  of  the  abdominal  serosa,  result- 


Fig-  95-  Coccidiae  in  the  various  stages  of  de- 
velopment, from  the  bile  duct  of  a  rabbit's  liver, 
a,  b,  small  granular,  young  forms;  c,  d,  larger 
forms  with  dark  stained  border  granules;  e,  f,  g, 
h,  oval,  encapsulated  forms,  the  protoplasma  of 
which  fills  up  a  portion  of  the  capsule.  (After 
Ziegler,  x  400  diameters). 


ing  in  extensive  adhesions  of  the  abdominal  organs.  The  dead  cysticerci 
may  be  found  in  large  numbers  among  the  peritoneal  folds  as  spherical, 
nodular  or  more  flattened  formations,  ranging  in  size  from  millet  seeds  to 
hazelnuts,  and  composed  of  whitish  to  yellowish-brown  caseous  material 
with  a  membranoid  envelope  (the  thickened  serosa). 

Usually  the  nature  of  the  nodules  is  easily  ascertained  macroscopic- 
ally  by  making  smears  of  the  contents  of  the  larger  and  softer  caseous 
nodules,  which  should  contain  portions  of  the  Cysticercus  membrane ;  and 
microscopically  by  the  presence  of  hooks  and  calcareous  bodies. 

The  calcareous  concrements  occasionally  encountered  in  the  muscula- 
ture of  sheep  may,  according  to  the  observations  of  Glage,  be  produced 
by  the  invasion  of  slender-necked  cysticerci. 

Relatively  quite  young  animals  may  harbor  the  parasite,  as  the  development  of 
the  thin-necked  bladder  worm  from  the  tapeworm  ova  occurs  within  5-6  weeks. 
At  this  stage  they  lie,  as  a  rule,  beneath  the  serous  membrane.  In  further  develop- 
ment the  bladder  worms  increase  the  protrusion  of  the  serosa  more  and  more,  but 
always  remain  covered  by  it.  In  young  animals  which  have  recently  ingested 


Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs  233 

numerous  tapeworm  ova,  one  occasionally  encounters  serpentine  paths  in  the  liver, 
filled  with  dark-red,  brownish  or  greenish  masses,  which  indicate  the  course  trav- 
ersed by  the  bladder-worm  embryos.  Should  the  parasites  remain  within  the  inte- 
rior of  the  organs,  especially  the  liver,  they  barely  attain  the  size  of  a  pea,  and 
rapidly  undergo  cheesy  and  calcareous  degeneration. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — Although  the  slender-necked  bladder  worms 
never  occur  between  the  muscle  fibers  as  matured  parasites,  they  have, 
nevertheless,  been  confounded  with  true  measles,  when  found  as  pea-sized 
vesicles  in  places  where  the  serosa  lie  directly  in  contact  with  the  muscu- 
lature (diaphragm,  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  abdominal,  intercostal,  and 
sternal  muscles).  Such  errors  do  not  occur  when  one — 

1.  Examines  the  favorite  site  of  true  measles   (C.  cellulosse   or    C. 
bovis),  where  the  thin-necked  measles  never  occur  (tongue,  larynx,  heart 
musculature).     If  no  measles  are  found  there  it  is  quite  likely  that  the 
doubtful  structure  is  not  a  true  measle. 

2.  Examines  the  scolex  of  the  doubtful  bladder  worms  microscop- 
ically, carefully  noting  the  number  and  shape  of  the  hooks. 

To  avoid  mistaking  the  caseous  or  calcified  thin-necked  bladder 
worms  for  tubercular  areas  it  is  essential  to  bear  in  mind  the  character- 
istic structure  of  the  latter,  and  to  ascertain  the  absence  of  infection  of  the 
lymphatic  glands  of  the  organ  under  consideration. 

(b)     Cysticcrcus  Pisiformis 

The  pea-shaped  bladder  worm  (the  larval  stage  of  the  Tcenia  serrata  of  the 
dog),  is  quite  common  in  the  lungs  and  liver,  and  especially  prevalent  in  the  serous 
lining  of  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities  of  rabbits  and  hares.  Sometimes  they 
occur  epizootically,  and  it  is  then  spoken  of  as  rabbit  venery;  and  in  some  cases  it 
is  at  times  held  to  be  tuberculosis,  as  caseation  and  calcification  of  the  cysts  occur 
xvithin  the  organs. 

On  Echinococci  of  serous  membranes,  see  page  237. 

(c)     Other  Parasites 

Filaria  equina,  a  round  worm  6-15  cm.  long,  has  been  found  free  in  the  abdomi- 
nal cavity  of  horses;  and  Strongylus  armatus  (Kitt)  has  been  found  in  the  same 
animal.  Migrating  liver  flukes  may  also  find  their  way  into  the  serous  cavities 
and  become  attached  to  serous  membranes. 

5.      Parasites  in  the  Brain 

Cceniirus  cerebralis. — Cerebral  bladder- worm  cysts,  filled  with  serous 
fluid,  in  sizes  from  that  of  a  pea  to  as  large  as  a  hen's  egg,  occur  in  the 
brains  of  sheep,  more  rarely  in  cattle,  and  produce  the  so-called  gid  or 

staggers. 


234  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

On  the  inner  wall  of  the  cysts  are  situated  large  numbers  of  millet-seed-sized 
whitish  granules,  the  scolices,  from  which  the  Tcenia  ccenurus  of  the  dog  is 
developed. 

The  development  of  ccenurus  cysts  lasts  for  two  to  two  and  a  half  months. 
The  embryos,  which  have  been  set  free  from  the  ova  in  the  digestive  tract,  are 
largely  disseminated  embolically.  As  early  as  8-14  days  after  invasion  there  are 
found  bluish-white  cysts  on  the  surface  of  the  brain,  these  cysts  having  a  diameter 
of  1-3  mm.  and  showing  sulphur-yellow  streaks.  Similar  streaks,  indicating  the 
path  of  the  wandering  onchospheres,  may  be  also  found  in  other  organs,  in  which 
there  are  later  observed  spherical,  encapsulated  areas  with  greenish  pus-like  con- 
tents (cestodal-tuberculosis,  pseudo-tuberculosis  verminosa).  These  areas  are 
transformed  by  calcification  into  nbrous-calciform  nodules  (chalicosis  nodularis). 

Occasionally  there  are  seen  ccenurus  cysts  (C.  serialis)  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
and  muscles  of  hares  and  rabbits. 

Other  parasites  occurring  in  the  central  nervous  system,  such  as  Cysticercus 
celluloses,  and  GEstrus  laruce  are  mentioned  elsewhere. 

Regarding  the  judgment  of  parasitic  organ  affections,  see  page  222. 


B,      Parasitic  General  Diseases 
1.     Pentastomum  Denticulatum 

The  denticulate  pentastome  is  the  larval  stage  of  the  tapeworm-like 
five-mouth  parasite  (Pentastomum  s.  Linguatula  tcenioides),  considered 
under  parasites  of  the  respiratory  system  (page  225),  and  inhabits  the 
intestines,  lymphatic  glands,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  serous  mem- 
branes of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  hogs,  deer,  rabbit,  and  hare. 

Development. — The  young  larvae  escape  from  the  ova  ingested  into  the  intes- 
tinal tract  with  food,  pierce  the  intestinal  wall,  and  enter  the  various  organs  actively 
or  embolically,  being  most  common  in  the  liver,  mesenteric,  inguinal  and  iliac  lym- 
phatic glands,  also  in  lung,  spleen,  pleura  and  peritoneum.  They  become  encysted, 
undergo  various  changes,  and  6-7  months  after  invasion  one  finds  the  mature  larva, 
P.  denticulatum.  It  either  dies  or  wanders  actively  through  the  peritoneal  or  pleu- 
ral  cavities  into  the  intestines  or  bronchi,  in  order  to  reach  the  beginning  of  the 
respiratory  apparatus  and  thus  escape. 

The  larval  invasion  and  its  results  produce  millet-seed-sized  white 
nodules,  which  lead  one  to  suspect  tuberculosis.  In  the  lymphatic  glands 
especially  on  the  periphery,  are  formed  irregular,  millet-seed  to  hazel-nut 
sized  areas  of  yellowish  or  greenish-gray  color  (Plate  II,  Fig  4).  The 
parasites  occur  within  this  caseous  or  mortar-like  substance  as  whitish, 
flat  larvae,  narrower  posteriorly,  of  6-8  mm.  length,  and  an  anterior  width 
of  1.2  to  2  mm.  The  segmented  body,  covered  with  teeth-like  thorns,  is 
supplied  with  two  pairs  of  hooks  on  either  side  of  the  mouth  (Fig.  96). 
The  latter  are  permanent  and  may  be  demonstrated  microscopically  when 
the  pentastoma  larvae  die  and  decompose. 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  235 

Recognition  or  identification  and  false  interpretation. — The  recogni- 
tion of  the  larval  site  is  not  difficult  if  the  places  in  question  and  the 
Imyphatic  glands  are  cut  open.  They  may  be  mistaken  for  tubercular 
areas  if  it  is  not  recalled  that — 

1.  Tubercular    areas    do    not    occur 
in  the  peripheral  zone  of  the  lymphatic 
glands  only,  but  also  in  their  interior. 

2.  Tubercular  areas  caseate  from  the 
center  and  are  surrounded  by  a  gray 
peripheral  layer,  whereas  pentastomum 
areas  possess  a  uniform  caseous  consist- 
ency. 

3.  Caseous  tubercular  areas  are  yel- 

Fig.   90.     Head  of   Pentastomum 

low,  while  caseated  pentastomum  areas     denticulatum,  x  40  diam.   (accord- 
give  a  greenish  color  (Plate  II,  Fig.  4).    ™S  to  Ziegler). 

4.  In  beginning  calcification,  tuberculous  areas  retain  their  yellow 
color ;  the  pentastomum  areas  on  the  contrary  turn  gray,  and 

5.  In    pentastomum    areas    the    larvae   or    their    hooks    are    easily 
demonstrated. 

Judgment. — Direct  transmission  of  the  pentastoma  larvae  to  man, 
through  eating  meat,  is  most  improbable.  The  portions  of  meat  showing 
a  heavy  infestation  with  P.  denticulatum  are  not  to  be  considered  danger- 
ous to  health,  but  at  the  most  are  to  be  designated  as  greatly  impaired  in 
value.  If  these  parasites  obtain  a  heavy  invasion  the  parts  or  organs  are 
to  be  removed  as  unfit  for  use,  while  isolated  areas  in  valuable  organs 
(liver)  may  be  excised. 

[In  the  United  States  organs  infested  with  P.  denticulatum  are 
condemned.] 

The  indirect  harmfulness  of  the  pentastoma  larvae  for  man  is  shown 
by  its  relation  to  P.  tanioides  of  man  and  dog ;  and  for  this  reason  special 
care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  dogs  from  eating  organs  infested  with 
P.  Denticulatum. 

Especially  conscientious  examination  is  required  in  pentastomatosis 
of  body  lymph  glands  to  avoid  mistaking  it  for  tuberculosis. 

2.     Echinococci 

Echinococci  are  bladder  worms  whose  scolices  are  not  situated  imme- 
diately or  directly  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  cyst  walls,  but  are  sur- 
rounded by  separate  capsules  -(proligerous  vesicles  or  daughter  cysts), 
which  are  attached  to  the  enveloping  membrane  by  a  pedicle,  or  exist  free 
within  the  serous  fluid  which  fills  the  cvsts. 


236 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


Echinococci  (Echinococcus  polymorphic)  occur  in  all  animals  used 
for  slaughter ;  most  commonly,  however,  in  sheep,  hogs,  and  cattle.  They 
form  the  asexual  stage  of  Tcenia  echinococcus,  the  three-segmented  tape- 
worm of  the  dog  (page  229),  and  occur  in  two  forms  as— 

(a)  Echinococcus  polymorphic  s.  unilocularis  s.  simplex,  and 

(b)  Echinococcus  multilocularis  s.  alveolaris. 

The  development  of  echinococci  results  from  the  ova  or  onchospheres  of  the 
Taenia  echinococcus  after  having  reached  the  alimentary  tract;  and,  according  to 
recent  observations  by  Mangold,  Mueller,  v.  Linstow,  Posselt,  this  taenia  exists  in 
the  dog  in  two  varieties,  which  externally,  however,  appear  very  similar.  The  dis- 
semination of  the  embryos  from  the  intestines  is  mainly  through  the  portal  circula- 
tion, which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  liver  is  the  most  common  site  of  infesta- 


Fig.  97.  Wall  of  an  echinococcus  cyst  with  brood  capsules  and  scolices ;  a,  chitin 
membrane  (cuticula)  ;  b,  layer  of  parenchyma  with  cystic  cells;  c,  daughter  cysts; 
d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  scoleces  in  various  stages  of  development  (according  to  Ziegler).  x 
loo  diameters. 

tion  with  developing  echinococcus  cysts.  According  to  Leuckart  the  development 
is  comparatively  slow.  White  nodules  of  about  one  millimeter  in  size  may  be  seen 
four  weeks  after  invasion,  and  after  four  more  weeks  the  cystic  nodules  have  only 
attained  a  size  of  1.5-2.5  mm.,  with  a  central  cavity  containing  fluid.  Only  at  the 
age  of  five  months  have  they  attained  15-20  mm.  in  size,  and  the  first  proligerous  or 
daughter  cysts  with  scolices  are  then  formed. 

The  echinococci  degenerate  easily  and  undergo  caseation  or  calcifica- 
tion. The  initial  stage  of  this  degeneration  is  a  softening  and  fatty  change 
of  the  parenchyma  layer,  and  a  transformation  of  the  partly  transudated 
echinococcic  fluid  into  a  sticky  honey-like  mass.  In  sheep  the  cyst  wall 
may  become  cartilaginous,  or  it  may  even  calcify.  The  scolices  of  the 
echinococci  die  as  a  result  of  the  processes  of  degeneration. 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  237 

(a)     Echinococcus  polyrnorphus  s.  unilocularis  s.  simplex 

The  simple  echinococcus  cyst  may  be  the  size  of  a  pea  or  as  large  as 
a  child's  head,  transparent  or  opaque,  light-gray  to  pure  white,  appearing 
in  all  animals  that  are  slaughtered,  especially  in  sheep,  hogs,  and  cattle. 
They  are  mainly  found  in  the  liver  and  lung,  but  they  may  also  be  present 
in  all  other  organs  of  the  body,  even  in  the  heart,  bones,  udder,  brain,  mus- 
cles. Of  the  organs  infested  with  echinococci,  the  liver  particularly  may 
increase  enormously  in  size  and  weight 

The  unilocular  echinococci  are  constantly  enclosed  by  a  connective 
tissue  capsule  (organic  membrane  of  Ostertag),  resulting  from  the  reac- 
tion of  the  immediately  surrounding  structures,  and  separating  the  para- 
site from  the  neighboring  tissues  of  the  organ. 

The  true  wall  of  the  echinococcic  cysts  is  composed  of  a  laminated  cuticula 
and  a  parenchymatous  layer  in  which  calcareous  bodies  may  be  found.  Should  the 
parenchymatous  layer  remain  smooth  upon  its  inner  surface  the  echinococcus  will  be 
found  to  contain  only  fluid,  and  is  then  called  E.  cysticus  sterilis;  this  is  the  most 
common  form  in  slaughter  animals.  If  proligerous  vesicles  (Fig.  98)  develop  from 
the  parenchymatous  layer,  there  is  formed  the  E.  fertilis,  which  is  found  most  fre- 


Fig.  98.  Closed  and  ruptured  brood  capsules  with  scolices  in  their  connection  with 
the  parenchymatous  layer  of  the  cystic  wall  (according  to  Leuckart).  x  40 
diameters. 

quently  in  hogs  and  sheep.  A  formation  of  the  so-called  daughter  cysts,  which  have 
the  same  structure  as  the  mother  cyst,  may  result  out  of  portions  of  the  parenchymatous 
layer  which  have  remained  between  the  layers  of  the  cuticula  (-M.  Braun).  Origi- 
nating in  the  substance  of  the  cuticle,  they  distend  the  wall  of  the  mother  cyst,  either 
outwardly  (E.  grannlosiis}  or  inwardly  (E.  hydatidosus}.  In  the  latter  case  the 
daughter  cysts  may  rupture  the  innermost  layers  of  the  wall  of  the  mother  cyst,  be 
set  free,  and  fall  into  the  mother  cyst.  The  early  growing  forms  of  the  echinococci, 
according  to  Leuckart,  appear  as  whitish  bodies  the  size  of  sago  seed,  which,  under 
the  microscope,  show  a  structureless  enveloping  membrane  of  granular  formation 
within. 

(b)    Echinococcus  inultilocularis  s.   alveolaris 

The     many-chambered    hydatid    occurs    as    a    tumor-like    growth 
(Fig.  99)  in  the  liver  and  lungs,  especially  in  cattle.     It  has  been  found 


238  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

occasionally  in  the  spleen  and  kidneys  and  other  organs  in  sheep,  also  in 
hogs,  and  in  the  latter  species  of  animals  it  has  been  found  in  a  form 
which  differs  from  that  in  cattle,  and  is  more  like  the  alveolar  echinococcus 
found  in  man  (Ostertag).  The  multilocular  echinococcus  is  composed  of 
numerous  small  cysts  or  vesicles  imbedded  in  a  connective  tissue  network. 
The  latter  is  delicate  and  thin  in  small  echinococcus  cysts,  but  in  growing 
attains  considerable  thickness  in  the  large  forms.  According  to  size  and 
age,  the  individual  vesicles  of  the  multilocular  echinococci  are  either  soft 


Fig.   99.     Section  through   liver  of  cow  with   Echinococcus   multilocularis 

and  elastic,  with  thin  walls  and  filled  with  serous  fluid,  or  gelatinous, 
caseated  and  calcified.  The  centers  of  the  larger  echinococci  are  usually 
of  the  latter  consistency,  while  the  peripheral  layers  are  made  of  the 
former.  The  growth  of  the  hydatid  occurs  by  formation  of  new  daughter 
cysts  from  the  mother  cysts,  emerging  from  within,  being  freed  by  the 
connective  tissue,  and  themselves  forming  mother  cysts  which,  in  their 
turn,  send  out  daughter  cysts  toward  the  periphery. 

In  other  respects  the  single  vesicle  of  the  alveolar  echinococcus  is  similar  to  the 
structure  of  the  simple  echinococcus ;  but,  according  to  v.  Linstow,  E.  alveolaris  has 
less  hooks  than  E.  cysticus  (26  as  compared  with  36).  That  both  are  not  identical 
biologically,  and  that  two  different  varieties  of  echinococcus  develop  from  these 
has  been  mentioned  on  page  229. 

The  alveolar  echinococcus  found  in  the  pleura  of  hogs  by  Ostertag  gave  the 
impression  of  a  miliary  pearl  disease.  The  numerous  millet-seed-shaped  nodules 
were  grayish-yellow,  of  firm  consistency,  and  enclosed  fresh  and  caseated  hydatids 
containing  scolices. 

The  recognition  of  echinococci  is  not  difficult  as  soon  as  they  have 
become  visible  on  the  surface  of  the  organs  and  have  not  degenerated. 
When  deeply  located  within  the  organs,  palpation  of  the  latter  will  enable 
the  perception  of  large  cysts;  smaller  ones,  however,  can  only  be  ascer- 
tained upon  section.  The  alveolar  echinococcus  and  caseated  or  calcified 
simple  echinococci  may  be  mistaken  for  tuberculosis,  if  we  fail  to  observe 
in  echinococcus  disease  that — 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  239 

1.  The  lymph  glands  belonging  to  the  organ  are  free  of  the  infection. 

2.  In  the  caseous  or  calcareous  masses  are  contained  delicate  mem- 
branous remnants,  the  hull  or  enveloping  membrane  of  the  proligerous 
vesicles,  or  the  remnants  of  the  main  membrane  of  the  mother  cyst. 

3.  The  cuticula  of  the  echinococcus  wall  shows  microscopically  a 
banded  or  striped  structure  (Fig.  97). 

4.  The  caseated  or  calcified  contents  of  unilocular  cysts  are  easily 
removed  from  the  surrounding  smooth-walled  connective-tissue  capsule. 

In  the  judgment  of  echinococci  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are 
not  transmissible  to  man  through  ingestion.  The  parasites  themselves, 
however,  are  to  be  looked  upon  as  objectionable  formations,  and  whenever 
they  are  found  in  small  numbers  in  any  organ  they  should  be  carefully 
excised,  while  the  organ  infested  is  to  be  cut  in  layers.  When  present  in 
great  numbers  the  organ  becomes  unfit  for  food,  and  is  to  be  condemned. 

[According  to.  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  17,  para- 
graph 3,  the  presence  of  an  organ  found  infested  with  echinococcus  cysts 
does  not  affect  the  wholesomeness  of  the  meat,  and  the  carcass  may  be 
passed  for  food  after  condemnation  of  the  infested  part  or  organ.] 

The  importance  of  the  echinococcus  cyst  to  man  lies  in  the  easy  transmission 
of  the  ova  of  Tsenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog  to  man.  This  is  proven  by  the  fact 
that  echinococcus  disease  in  man  is  proportional  to  that  of  domestic  animals  in 
those  localities  in  which  the  animal  echinococci  are  not  carefully  removed,  thus 
allowing  dogs  to  gain  access  to  the  tissues  containing  echinococci.  The  echi- 
nococcus cysts  in  man  formed  from  the  Taenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog  are  developed 
in  the  same  way  as  in  animals  and  almost  in  every  case  lead  to  severe  disturbance 
of  health  and  may  even  prove  fatal.  For  this  reason  the  careful  removal  of  all 
echinococci  through  meat  inspection  is  of  the  greatest  sanitary  value  and 
importance. 

3,     Measles 

The  true  measles  of  food-producing  animals  are  the  larval  stages  of 
two  varieties  of  tapeworms  in  man.  We  have  for  consideration,  there- 
fore, two  corresponding  forms  of  measles : 

(a)     Cysticercus  cellulose,  the  pork  measle. 

(&)     Cysticercus  bovis,  the  beef  measle. 

The  transition  stage  of  a  third  tapeworm  of  man,  found  in  the  flesh 
of  fish,  namely,  that  of  Bothriocephalus  latus,  will  be  considered  in 
Chapter  IX. 

The  larval  stages  of  the  Bothriocephalus  liguloides,  which  occur  in  man  in 
Japan,  according  to  Miyake,  need  not  be  considered  here.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
hydatids  of  Tania  krabbei,  which  Rusche  reported  in  reindeer  meat.  The  tape- 
worm in  question  is  parasitic  in  dogs.  The  hydatids  are  somewhat  smaller  than 
hog  measles,  their  scolex  having  26-39  hooks  of  various  sizes. 


240  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Generalities  and  Development. — The  measles  develop  from  the  tape- 
worm eggs  which  have  gained  access  to  the  stomach  of  the  respective  host 
where  they  are  freed  from  their  covering.  Either  actively  or  passively 
the  developing  embryos  gain  access  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  form  in 
the  connective  tissue  of  the  body,  especially  in  the  striated  musculature 
the  so-called  measles.  These  appear  as  round  or  oval,  transparent,  color- 
less to  grayish-white  vesicles,  ranging  in  size  from  a  millet-seed  to  a 
double-pea,  and  filled  with  a  serous  fluid.  An  invagination  of  the  cyst 
wall,  the  site  of  the  future  tapeworm,  shows  the  scolex  as  a  whitish  trans- 
lucent spot.  The  measles  are  separated  from  the  surrounding  tissues  by 
the  so-called  bladder  worm  capsule,  a  delicate,  connective  tissue  mem- 
brane, formed  by  the  reaction  of  the  cellular  tissue.  In  microscopic 
examination  of  a  cyst  whose  scolex  has  been  extruded  by  gentle  pres- 
sure between  two  glass  plates,  we  observe  four  suckers,  and  sometimes 
crowns  of  hooks  on  the  spherical  or  pear-shaped  head  (scolex).  In  the 
so-called  neck  we  find  numerous  calcareous  bodies  and  a  cross-striation 
pointing  to  the  future  segments.  The  development  of  measles  in  ani- 
mals follows  ingestion  of  tapeworm  ova,  whose  onchospheres  (embryos), 
supplied  with  hooks,  are  largely  carried  from  the  intestines  to  the  widely 
divergent  portions  of  the  body  (connective  tissue  of  the  body)  by  the 
blood  stream.  The  measles,  especially  those  of  cattle,  may  at  any  stage 
of  their  development  undergo  degeneration — hypertrophy  of  the  sac  sur- 
rounding the  measle,  coagulation  necrosis,  caseation,  suppuration,  calcifi- 
cation, and  usually  lose  their  capacity  for  further  development,  which  is 
decided  by  the  intactness  of  the  scolex.  If  the  latter  cannot  be  demon- 
strated, or  is  easily  crushed,  the  measles  are  no  doubt  dead.  The  via- 
bility of  measles  is  limited,  temperatures  of  45-50°  C.  causing  them 
to  die;  a  strong  salt  solution  will  also  kill  them  in  a  short  while.  The 
measles  survive  the  death  of  their  host  for  several  weeks.  The  fact  that 
meat  is  spoiled  does  not  necessarily  mean  death  of  the  hydatids. 

Intrauterine  infection  of  the  fetus  with  embryos  of  measles,  as  some 
observations  from  practice  would  indicate,  is  not  yet  proven. 

(a)     Cysticercus  Celluloscc 

The  measles  of  pork  is  the  asexual  transition  or  larval  stage  of  the 
hermit  tapeworm  (Tccnia  solinin)  of  man.  The  bluish-white  cysts  of 
pork  measles  and  the  surrounding  bladders  are  very  thin ;  through  them 
the  invaginated  scolex  may  be  distinctly  seen.  The  latter  has  four 
suckers  and  a  rostellum  with  double  crown,  of  22-28  hooks  (Fig.  100), 
which  are  absent  in  beef  measles. 

Occurrence — Locality. — The  pork  measles  are  found  particularly  in 
the  connective  tissues  of  domestic  and  wild  hogs ;  rarely  they  are  observed 


Parasitic  General  Diseases 


241 


in  sheep,  goat,  dog,  bear,  cat,  deer,  buck,  monkey,  and  man.     The  favorite 
site  is  the  intermuscular  tissue  of  the  heart,  tongue,  larnyx,  abdomen, 
diaphragm,  flanks,  masticatory,  neck,  sternum,  intercostal  muscles,  and 
adductors  of  the  hind  legs.    When  infesta- 
tion is  heavy  they  may  be  found  in  all 
muscles   of  the   body,   in  the   panniculus 
adiposus  and  in  the  brain ;  very  rarely  in 
the  lung  and  liver.    In  case  of  marked  in- 
vasion the  musculature  is  aqueous  and  dis- 
colored a  grayish-red.    When  a  heavy  in- 
vasion occurs  the  measles  may  be  recog- 
nized beneath  the  mucosa  of  the  tongue  in 
the  living  animal. 

Frequency. — The  number  of  measly  hogs  has 
been  decreasing  steadily  in  Germany,  thanks  to 
meat  inspection.  The  number  of  measly  hogs 
is  in  general  much  larger  in  East  Germany 
than  in  the  west  and  south. 

According  to  the  government  meat  inspec- 
tion statistics  of  the  year  1904,  measles  were 
found  in  0.25  per  cent,  of  all  slaughtered  hogs 
in  the  German  Empire.  Infection  is  much 
more  common  in  hogs  in  Russia  and  Austro- 
Hungary;  Prettner,  ofPrag,  found  measles  in 
3.44  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  in  Austro-Hungary. 


Fig.  loo.  Scolex  of  the  hog 
measle.  Squeeze  preparation,  x 
50  diameters.  *« 


The  detection  of  measles  is  not  difficult  by  careful  examination  of 
the  above-mentioned  favorite  sites.  The  tongue  muscles  are  always  to  be 
separated,  and  the  heart  should  be  laid  open  with  a  cut  exposing  both 
chambers  and  dividing  wall.  In  doubtful  cases  a  microscopic  examina- 
tion is  to  be  made.  This  will  ascertain  the  presence  or  absence  of  the 
hooks  and  their  number,  etc.  The  latter  remain  intact  even  in  caseous  or 
calcified  measles. 

In  order  to  avoid  error,  one  must  bear  in  mind  the  thin-necked  blad- 
der worm  (Cysticercus  tcnuicollis),  whose  characteristics  were  described 
on  page  232.  From  a  differential  diagnostic  point  of  view,  the  following 
indications  are  especially  to  be  observed : 

1.  The   thin-necked   bladder   worm   is   never   situated    intermuscu- 
larly;  if  present  it  will  be  found  on  the  muscles  which  are  covered  with 
serous   membranes    (abdominal,    diaphragmatic,   intercostal   and   sternal 
muscles). 

2.  In  the  isolated  specimen  of  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  attention  is 
called  to  the  thin  neck  and  the  presence  of  more  than  28  hooks  (32-40) 
on  the  scolex. 


242 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


Fig.  101  Fig.  102 

Fig.  101.  Hooks  of  the  hog  measle 

Fig.  102.  Hooks  of  the  cysticercus  tenuicollis 


3.  The  hooks  of  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  are  more  sickle-shaped ;  those 
of  Cysticercus  cellulose  shaped  more  scythe-like  (Fig.  102).  Some  of  the 
smaller  hooks  of  the  former  possess,  in  addition,  a  cleft  or  bifurcated  basal 
process,  which  is  not  found  in  Cysticercus  celluloses  (Schwarz). 
(Fig.  101.) 

Even  small  echinococci 
may  most  exceptionally  oc- 
cur in  the  musculature  in 
cases  of  unusually  heavy 
infestation,  but  by  bearing 
the  characteristic  signs  of 
this  parasite  in  mind,  no 
difficulty  should  be  en- 
countered in  recognizing  it. 
In  order  to  differentiate 
between  caseous  and  calcified  measles,  there  come  in  question — 

1.  Embolic   suppurations  in  the  muscles. 

2.  Calcareous  areas  of  degeneration. 

3.  Calcified   parasites    (trichinae,   echinococci,   thin-necked   bladder 
worms. 

These  occurrences  in  the  musculature  not  only  seldom  occur,  but  pre- 
sent such  definite  characteristic  appearances  in  the  area  affected  that  a 
careful  examination  will  prevent  mistaking  them  for  measles. 

Judgment. — Measly  pork  in  a  raw  or  improperly  cooked  condition  is 
harmful  to  man,  inasmuch  as  the  hermit  tapeworm  develops  in  man  from 
the  measle.  This  parasite,  2-3.5  m-  m  length,  is  injurious  to  man — 

1.  By   causing   disturbances   of  digestion   and  nervous   symptoms, 
which  may  be  present  more  or  less  markedly  according  to  the  individual 
susceptibility  of  the  patient. 

2.  By  removal  of  foodstuffs  (nutrition). 

3.  By  the  danger  of  autoinfection  with  measles. 

The  latter  is  effected  by  uncleanliness  in  defecation,  or  through  antiperistalsis 
in  which  the  ova  or  mature  segments  of  the  tapeworm  may  gain  entrance  into  the 
stomach  of  the  affected  individual  and  reproduce  in  this  way  the  same  measle  devel- 
opment as  occurs  in  the  regular  way  of  change  of  host  in  the  hog.  But  the  develop- 
ment of  this  species  in  the  human  body  is  of  especial  gravity  and  danger,  as  it  fre- 
quently appears  in  the  cerebrum,  spinal  cord,  and  eyes,  producing  severe  disturbance 
of  health  and  even  death. 


[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  17,  para- 
graph i,  carcasses  affected  with  Cysticercus  celluloses  may  be  passed  for 
lard  unless  the  infestation  is  excessive,  in  which  case  the  carcass  is 
condemned.] 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  243 

Regulations. — As  already  stated  on  page  240,  measles  may  be  made 
harmless  by  high  temperature  and  strong  salt  solutions.  For  this  reason 
measly  pork  may  be  utilized  for  food,  provided  the  infestation  is  not  too 
heavy.  Meat  is  considered  strongly  measly  or  heavily  infested  when  the 
measles  are  present  alive  or  dead  in  large  numbers  in  areas  as  large  as 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  on  section  of  muscles  in  the  favorite  location  of  the 
measles.  This  is  the  case,  as  a  rule,  when  in  the  majority  of  the  cut  sur- 
faces there  is  found  more  than  one  measle  in  each  section. 

Heavily  infested  measly  meat  possesses  characteristics  which  incur  a 
general  disgust  and  makes  the  meat  unfit  for  food.  The  same  is  true 
when  the  meat,  without  being  heavily  infested  with  measles,  is  aqueous 
or  discolored. 

Anent  the  utility  of  measly  meat,  the  true  musculature,  the  meat  in  a 
restricted  sense,  is  to  be  considered  separate  from  the  fat  and  the  viscera. 
Measles  rarely  occur  in  the  fat  and  in  the  viscera,  nor  are  either  of  these 
used  for  food  in  the  raw  state.  Special  regulations,  therefore,  apply  to 
these. 

Lightly  infested  measly  meat  (Cysticerc-us  cellulose?)  may  be  made 
harmless  by  the  following  methods : 

1.  Thorough  Boiling. — Inasmuch  as  a  temperature    over    49°    C. 
destroys  measles,  thoroughly  boiled  pork  which  assumes  a  grayish-white 
color  throughout  even  in  the  thickest  portions,  and  in  which  the  juice 
emanating  on  section  is  no  longer  red,  is  to  be  considered  harmless. 

2.  Pickling — Salting. — If  pork  has  been  thoroughly  salted  for  2  to  3 
weeks  the  measles  will  be  destroyed  with  certainty. 

3.  Freezing — Refrigeration. — After  large  pieces  of  pork  have  been 
kept  for  four  days  at  a  temperature  8-10°  C.  below  zero  the  measles  con- 
tained therein  will  be  found  dead.     This  method  has,  however,  not  been 
accepted  or  incorporated  into  the  legal  regulations. 

The  method  of  killing  beef  measles,  described  on  page  245,  that  is,  by  sufficiently 
long  preservation  of  the  meat,  cannot  be  employed  in  pork  measles,  as  they  have 
been  found  viable  42  days  after  the  death  of  the  host  (Ostertag). 

For  inspection  regulations,  see  page  246. 

(b)     Cystic  ercus  Inermis  s.  Bovis 

The  beef  measle  is  the  asexual  intermediate  or  larval  stage  of  the 
tapeworm  T&nia  saginata  s.  T.  Mediocanellata  s.  T.  inermis  of  man.  The 
usually  oval,  grayish-white  vesicles  contain  the  scolex  which  may  be 
seen  within  the  cyst.  The  scolex  contains  four  suckers,  but  no  crown  of 
hooks.  Numerous  calcareous  (small)  bodies  may  be  seen  microscopically 
in  the  neck  of  the  scolex.  The  size  (diameter)  of  the  measles  varies, 
according  to  Kaeppel,  between  5  and  19  mm.  in  length  and  3-8.5  mm 
in  width. 


244 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


Ostertag  was  the  first  to  establish  the  fact  that  numerous  measles 
may  become  completely  disintegrated  and  be  absorbed  later.  This  explains 
the  excess  of  infestation  in  younger  cattle. 

Processes  of  degeneration  are  much  more  common  in  beef  measles  than 
in  pork  measles,  and  may  appear  at  any  stage  of  development.  Measles 
of  the  viscera,  masticatory  muscle  and  tongue  muscle  are  most  suscep- 
tible to  degeneration  and  the  processes  of 
caseation  are  frequently  recognized  by  their 
green  color.  If  the  scolex  has  also  been  de- 
stroyed in  these  regressive  metamorphoses, 
and  is  not  demonstrable  microscopically,  the 
measles  are  without  doubt  dead. 

Occurrence — Prevalence.  —  Beef  measles 
occur  relatively  seldom  in  suckling  calves, 
more  frequently  in  older  calves  and  beeves 
in  the  intermuscular  connective  tissue,  usu- 
ally in  small  numbers.  Sites  of  predilection 
are  the  inner  (M.  pterygoid.  medial,  et 
lateral.)  and  outer  (M.  masseter)  muscles 
of  mastication,  heart  and  tongue  muscles. 
Next  in  order  are  the  muscles  of  the  dia- 
phragm, diaphragmatic  pillars,  esophagus, 
larynx,  thorax,  intercostals,  and  rump  mus- 
cles ;  and,  in  fact,  they  are  found  in  all  the 
muscles  of  the  body,  but  their  distribution  is 
very  irregular.  We  may  suddenly  come 
upon  nests  of  measles  in  the  center  of  a 
large  uninfested  area.  In  severe  or  heavy  invasion  the  lungs,  liver,  brain, 
lymphatic  glands  and  fatty  tissue  are  also  affected,  but  measles  have  been 
found  in  these  organs  or  regions  in  isolated  numbers,  in  even  very  slight 
infestation. 

Frequency. — According  to  the  Government  meat-inspection  statistics  for  the  year 
1904,  measles  occurred  in  the  German  Empire  in  3.2  of  every  1,000  head  of  cattle 
slaughtered,  as  follows :  5.13  steers,  6.03  bulls,  1.67  cows,  3.21  young  beeves,  and 
0.024  calves. 

C.  bovis  does  not  occur  in  reindeer  meat,  but  the  armed  measles  of  Tania 
krabbel  are  found  there,  as  has  been  mentioned  on  page  239. 

In  order  to  detect  beef  measles  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  make 
several  cuts  into  the  inner  and  outer  muscles  of  mastication,  to  inspect 
carefully  the  tongue  musculature,  also  to  inspect  carefully  the  heart  exter- 
nally and  internally  after  laying  open  the  chambers  and  cutting  through 
the  dividing  wall.  It  is  understood  that  all  other  surfaces  as  well  as  cut 
surfaces  of  the  remaining  muscles  be  inspected  for  beef  measles.  The 


Fig.  103.  Scolex  of  the  cattle 
measle.  x  50  diameters. 


Parasitic  General  Diseases 


245 


discovery  of  doubtful  formations  and  degenerated  measles  requires  a 
microscopical  examination. 

Regarding  the  likelihood  of  mistaking  beef  measles  for  similar 
structures,  we  would  refer  to  the  points  presented  on  page  241  in  con- 
nection with  pork  measles.  The  special  morphologic  characteristics  of 
beef  measles  are  always  to  be  borne  in  mind. 

Judgment. — Raw,  measly  beef  is  to  be  viewed  as  injurious  to  man,  as 
the  4-6  meter  long  Tcenia  saginata  is  developed  in  man  from  the  ingested 
beef  measle.  The  effect  of  infestation  in  man  is  the  same  as  that  of  infes- 
tation with  Tcenia  solium,  as  mentioned  on  page  242,  with  the  exception 
of  the  danger  of  autoinfection,  which  has  not  been  observed  in  the  hosts 
of  Tcenia  saginata. 

Legal    regulations    for    inspection    of    slaughter    animals    infested    with  measles 

injurious  to  health 


Finding 


Judging  of  the  meat 


Beef 


Hogs,  sheep,  goats 


Dog 


1.  Heavy  infestation  with 
measles.  (Measles  occur, 
alive  or  dead,  in  a  large 
number  of  the  prescribed 
muscle  sections  or  the 
meat  is  aqueous  or  discol- 
ored without  regard  to  the 
grade  of  measle  infestation.) 


2.  Slight  infestation  with 
measles.  (All  cases  of 
finding  live  measles  with  ex- 
ception of  heavy  infestation 
with  measles,  etc.,  as  under  1, 
and  of  one-measled  infes- 
tation as  under  3.) 


The     whole     body     is 


unfit     for     food 
exceptions: 


with     the     following 


Fat,     liver,     spleen,     kidneys, 
stomach   and  intestines, 


Liver,    spleen,    kidneys,    stom- 
ach,   and   intestines, 


are   fit   for   food   when   careful   examination   has   shown   them 
to  be  free  of  measles;  otherwise 

the   fat    Is    to   be   used   under  the  organs  are  unfit  for  food, 
certain    conditions,    and   the  The    fat  is    considered    ad- 
other    organs    are    unfit    for  missible.  provisionally, 
food. 

The     entire     animal     body     may     be     utilized     with     certain 
restrictions. 


The    fat,     liver,     spleen,     kid- 


neys, 
tines 


stomach     and     intes- 


Liver,    spleen,    kidneys,    stom- 
ach,   and    intestines 


are    fit    for    food    if    found    free    of    measles    upon    careful 
inspection 

Fat    is    always    fit,    condition- 
ally. 

3.     One     measled.       (a)     Only     Tne   meat  is  to  be  excised  at  the  site  where  the  measle     is 
one   measle    (live)    has   been  situated  and  this  portion  is  unfit  for  food, 

found,    even   after  examina- 


tion  of  the  animal  body 
upon  section  into  pieces  of 
about  2.5  kg. 


neys, 
tines 


fat.    liver,     spleen,     kid- 
stomach,     and    intes- 


Liver,    spleen,    kidneys,    stom- 
ach,  and  intestines 


in    value. 

(b)     On     prescribed    examina-  i  As  under  3a. 
tion    for    measles    only    one  i 

live  measle  has  been  found,     The    other     meat     is     fit     for 
and  the  meat  has  been  kept        food   without  restrictions, 
in    the    cooling   or   refriger- 
ating   room    for    21    days. 


the     fat,      is     impaired     in 
value. 


are  to  be  considered  fit   for  food    without  cutting   them   into 

sections  if  upon  proper  inspection  they  have  been  found 

free  of  measles.     Nor  is  thorough  cooling  required. 


The    other    meat    is    impaired  I  The   other   meat,    inclusive  of       s 


246  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Regulations. — As  the  beef  measle  is  much  more  easily  killed  than 
the  pork  measle,  measly  beef  may  be  made  fit  for  human  food,  provided 
it  is  only  slightly  infested  (the  infestation  is  not  heavy)  (see  page  243), 
by  boiling  thoroughly,  or  salting,  or  freezing,  or  preserving  it  for  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  (cooling  it  thoroughly).  The  first  three  methods 
have  already  been  discussed  under  pork  measles,  page  243.  The  admis- 
sion of  so-called  one-measled  beeves  (einfinnigen  Kinder). as  human  food, 
without  previous  destruction  of  the  measles,  is  a  regulation  in  favor  of 
commercial  interest  against  which  weighty  sanitary  considerations  will 
not  prevail. 

As  concerns  thorough  cooling  of  the  meat  and  its  effect  on  the 
vitality  of  the  measles  under  proper  preservation  of  the  meat,  numer- 
ous experiments  have  shown  that  the  beef  measle  survives  its  host  18-20 
days  at  the  outside. 

If,  therefore,  slightly  infected  beef  be  kept  in  the  prescribed  man- 
ner (refrigerating  rooms)  for  at  least  three  weeks,  it  may  be  admitted  to 
the  trade  in  the  raw  state  without  incurring  any  risk  of  infestation. 

[The  regulation  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  applying  to  the  infestation  of 
pork  with  Cysticercus  cellulose?,  which  was  quoted  on  page  242,  applies 
also  to  infestation  of  beef  with  Cysticercus  bovis.] 

4,     Trichinosis 

Trichinosis  is  due  to  Trichina  spiralis,  a  roundworm  inhabiting  the 
muscles  (muscle  trichina),  which  is,  however,  not  a  sexually  mature  indi- 
vidual, but  the  asexual  larval  state  of  the  intestinal  trichina  whose  habitat 
is  in  the  intestines. 

Generalities  and  Development. — The  intestinal  trichina  is  a  round- 
worm  belonging  to  the  family  Trichotrachelidse,  according  to  Schneider, 
of  the  Holomyarise,  existing  in  both  sexes,  and  found  in  the  adult  state 
in  the  small  intestines  of  man  and  various  mammals.  The  males  attain  a 
length  of  1.5  mm.,  are  0.04  mm.  thick,  and  possess  two  caudal  appen- 
dages (sexual  spicules).  The  females  are  3-4  mm.  long  and  0.06  mm. 
thick. 

Characteristic  of  the  morphology  of  the  trichina  is  its  pointed  anterior 
and  the  blunt  posterior  extremity  of  the  body,  as  well  as  of  the  internal 
organs,  the  so-called  "cell  body,"  a  row  of  large  nucleated  cells  which  lay 
in  the  anterior  half  of  the  body  around  the  esophagus. 

The  trichina  occurs  in  carnivorous  and  omnivorous  animals,  of  which 
the  following  deserve  special  mention :  Domestic  and  wild  hog,  dog,  rat, 
fox,  badger,  marten,  polecat,  bear,  cat ;  it  may  be  transmitted  to  a  number 


Parasitic  General  Diseases 


247 


of  other  mammals  by  feeding,  but  cannot  be 
transmitted  to  birds  or  cold-blooded  animals. 
Muscle  trichinae  do  not  develop  in  birds,  but  in- 
testinal trichinae  may  occur. 

The  actual  main  host  of  the  trichina,  no  doubt, 
is  the  rat;  and  these  animals  readily  transmit  the 
infestation  to  each  other.  Animals  which  prey 
on,  or  occasionally  eat  rats,  may  become  infested 
from  them  (hog,  dog.  cat,  bear,  marten,  polecat), 
and  the  trichina  contained  in  their  meat  can  again 
reinfest  the  rats.  Trichina  may  also  be  trans- 
mitted through  the  ingestion  of  feces  of  animals 
which  have  eaten  trichinous  meat,  but  not  from 
the  fact  that  intestinal  trichinae  are  thus  trans- 
mitted, but  because  the  feces  contained  undi- 
gested trichinosed  meat  (Ostertag). 

Development  of  the  Trichina. — Upon  the  inges- 
tion of  meat  containing  trichinae,  the  latter  are 
freed  through  digestion  of  the  parasitic  sacs  and 
their  surrounding  capsules  and  develop  to  sexu- 
ally mature  worms  in  the  intestinal  tract.  While 
the  males  die  shortly  after  impregnating  the  fe- 
male and  are  digested  and  discharged  with  the 
feces,  the  females  penetrate  into  the  glands  of 
Lieberkiihn  of  the  intestinal  mucous  mem- 
brane, with  their  anterior  extremity,  and  deposit 
their  young.  During  the  six  to  seven  weeks  of 
life  each  female  gives  birth  to  1,500  to  2,000,  ac- 
cording to  Braun  even  8,000  to  10,000,  embryos 
of  o.i  mm.  in  length,  which  are  carried  into  the 
blood  by  the  intestinal  lymph  stream.  The  blood 
carries  them  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  in  this 
way  they  gain  access  to  the  striated  muscular  tis- 
sues in  which  they  locate  exclusively,  the  heart 
excepted.  Trichina  embryos  in  other  tissues  and 
organs  of  the  body  die.  In  the  further  develop- 
ment of  trichina  embryos  in  the  striated  muscles, 
they  emerge  from  the  capillaries  partly  by  diape- 
desis,  partly  by  boring  through  the  wall,  and  en- 
ter the  sarcolemma-'sheath.  As  early  as  the  7th  to 
8th  day  after  ingestion  of  trichinosed  meat  there 
may  be  found  the  first  wandering  embryos  in 


B 

Fig.  104.  Adult  trichi- 
nae. A,  male;  B,  female 
(after  Leuckart).  x  120 
diameters. 

the    musculature.     The 


embryos  which  wander  within  the  muscle  sheath  to  the  bony  or  tendonous 


248 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


insertions  of  the  muscle  fibers  destroy  the  contractile  contents  of  the 
muscle  sheath,  which  lose  their  striation  and  at  first  assume  a  homogene 
ous,  then  a  granular  appearance.  Finally  the  embryos  become  quiescent 
and  roll  up,  spirally,  within  the  sarcolemma.  This  terminates  the  migra- 
tion of  the  embryos,  which  have  attained  a  length  of  I  mm.,  and  three 
weeks  after  ingestion  of  trichinosed  meat  have  become  muscle  trichinae. 
The  characteristics  of  the  muscle  trichina,  which  has  no  sexual  apparatus, 

is  the  anterior  pointed  and 
the  posterior  blunt  (body) 
extremity,  the  cell -body, 
and  its  situation  within  the 
*HJ  muscle  sheath.  The  en- 
cystment  of  the  muscle 
trichina  soon  begins,  form- 
ing capsules  of  a  lemon- 
shaped  form,  whose  longi- 
tudinal axis  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  muscle  fibers. 
The  first  signs  of  the  cap- 
sules may  be  observed  dur- 
ing the  5th  week  following 
infestation;  and  9  to  12 
weeks  thereafter  one  will 

find  fully  developed  capsules  everywhere.  The  capsule  itself  is  structure- 
less, homogeneous,  shiny,  possesses  a  double  contour,  and  is  transparent 
in  the  beginning.  Fat  cells  form  at  the  poles  of  the  capsules  within  the 
muscle  sheath,  and  at  the  end  of  three  months  lime  salts  also  appear.  The 
latter  gradually  encrust  the  entire  capsule  and  sometimes  the  trichina 
itself.  The  calcification  of  the  capsule  may  be  complete  at  the  ninth 
month,  but  usually  takes  18  months.  Muscle  trichinae  may  remain  active 
within  the  capsule  for  many  years  (they  have  been  found  alive  for  31 
years  in  man). 

Historical. — The  first  one  to  name  trichina  was  Owen,  who  gave  a  more  detailed 
account  in  1835  of  a  worm  which  had  been  found  in  the  same  year  by  Paget,  of 
London,  encysted  in  the  musculature  of  man.  The  muscle  trichina  was  found  in 
hogs  by  Leidy,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1847.  In  1850  Herbst,  of  Gottingen,  made  the 
first  experiments  at  transmission  of  trichina;  he  infected  a  badger  with  the  encap- 
sulated trichina  of  a  dog,  and  with  the  meat  of  the  former  infected  two  dogs.  The 
importance  of  trichina  to  man  was  recognized  in  1869,  by  Zenker,  of  Dresden,  who 
found  sexually  mature  trichinae  in  the  intestines  of  a  girl  who  had  died  from 
typhoid;  and  also  found  recent  unencapsulated  muscle  trichinae  in  the  musculature. 
He  was  enabled  to  prove  that  the  girl  had  eaten  of  pork  which  had  been  found  by 


Fig.  105. 
Leuckart). 


Encapsulated  muscle  trichinae   (after 
x  60  diameters. 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  249 

him  to  be  heavily  infested  with  trichinae.  In  view  of  this  discovery  some  of  the 
most  important  observers  studied  the  trichina,  and  the  life  cycle  of  this  worm  was 
established  by  Leuckart,  Virchow,  Fiedler,  Haubner,  et  al.  The  biological  condi- 
tion of  the  trichina  received  further  attention  later  by  Heitzmann,  Cerfontaine, 
Geisse,  Askanazy,  Chatin,  Graham,  Staeubli,  etc. 

The  great  danger  of  trichina  to  man  was  demonstrated  scientifically  for  the 
first  time  in  the  epidemics  of  trichinosis  at  Hettstedt  (1863),  when  160  persons 
became  infested  and  28  died,  and  at  Hedersleben  (1865),  where  337  cases  occurred 
with  101  deaths.  In  the  years  following  numerous  observations  of  small  and  large 
epidemics  were  made  in  the  most  widely  divergent  portions  of  Central  and  North 
Germany.  , 

The  distribution  of  trichinae  in  the  musculature  is  not  uniform.  They 
are. found  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  diaphragmatic  pillars  and  the  dia- 
phragmatic muscles,  which  Heitzmann  explains  by  the  arrest  of  the 
embryos  at  the  moment  of  muscular  contraction,  as  this  causes  a  transitory 
contraction  or  narrowing  of  the  capillary  diameter.  In  view  of  the  con- 
stant activity  of  the  respiratory  muscles,  this  heavy  infestation  of  trichinae 
should  not  be  surprising.  Next  in  order  of  frequency  of  invasion  are  the 
tongue,  laryngeal  muscles,  lumbar,  masticatory  and  abdominal  muscles. 
Specimens  for  examination  should  therefore  be  taken  from  the  above- 
stated  muscles  of  the  hog.  If  careful  microscopic  examination  of  the 
diaphragmatic  pillar,  diaphragmatic,  laryngeal,  and  tongue  muscles  ha? 
failed  to  reveal  any  trichinae,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  remaining  mus- 
culature does  not  harbor  any  parasites  either ;  should  isolated  specimens 
occur  in  the  remaining  musculature,  the  ingestion  of  this  meat  is  never 
followed  by  any  deleterious  results.  Trichinae  do  not  occur  in  fat;  sides 
of  bacon  may  contain  them  should  muscle  tissue  be  adherent,  especially 
the  skin  muscles. 

The  frequency  of  trichinosis  in  hogs  is  variable  and  does  not  give  rise  to 
any  characteristic  symptoms  in  these  animals.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  trichi- 
nosed  hogs  of  Germany  come  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Empire.  In  the  King- 
dom of  Prussia  0.005  per  cent,  of  hogs  examined  in  1904  were  found  affected.  The 
same  ratio  was  obtained  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  during  1901-1905,  whereas  in 
1891-1900,  o.oi  per  cent,  of  all  slaughtered  and  inspected  hogs  showed  trichinous 
infection.  Trichinosis  among  hogs  in  Germany  is  therefore  gradually  decreasing. 
In  Saxony  it  was  found  that  hogs  imported  from  Austria-Hungary  contained  more 
infection  than  those  at  home.  Pork  from  America  has  been  found  trichinous  in 
4-8  per  cent,  of  the  cases,  according  to  our  observations  [observations  made  in  Ger- 
many. In  the  United  States  the  percentage  of  trichinous  hogs  found  by  the 
trichina  inspectors  after  examining  thousands  of  carcasses  averaged  about  2  per 
cent,  yearly.]  Among  1,177  dogs  slaughtered  in  Chemnitz  during  1897-1900, 
13=1.11  per  cent,  were  found  trichinosed.  In  the  whole  Kingdom  of  Saxony,  in 
1006,  among  3,603  slaughtered  dogs  8  (0.222  per  cent.)  were  found  infested  with 
trichinae. 

In  order  to  elicit  the  origin  of  infested  hogs  the  Imperial  Chancellor  has  insti- 
tuted compulsory  trichina  inspection  in  the  various  states  which  traces  the  origin  of 


250  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

every  infested  animal  and  reports  accordingly  to  the  Reichsamt  of  the  interior  which 
in  turn  informs  the  affected  sections  of  the  allied  states  of  the  presence  of  trichina 
in  hogs  coming  from  their  district. 

A  careful  microscopic  examination  is  necessary  in  order  to  recognize  trichina 
in  the  meat;  a  magnification  of  30  is  best. 

A  careful  examination  for  trichina  of  suckling  pigs,  wild  hogs,  dogs,  and  bears, 
according  to  the  directions  laid  down,  is  also  of  importance  owing  to  the  prevalance 
of  trichina  in  man,  of  which  Opalka  has  recently  presented  interesting  tables,  see 
page  147. 

Diluted  acetic  acid  (1:30)  may  be  added  to  preparations  of  indistinct,  not 
entirely  fresh  meat,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  it;  diluted  potassium  hydrate  solution 
may  be  added  to  salted  meat  or  ham  to  aid  swelling  of  the  muscle  fibers. 

In  the  examination  of  hog  meat,  the  specimens  should  always  be 
taken  in  hams,  etc.,  from  the  bones ;  that  is,  at  the  tendonous  insertions  of 
the  muscles.  The  examination  of  sausage  is  naturally  of  doubtful  value. 

For  the  compulsory  federated  trichina  inspection  among  the  allied 
states  of  the  German  Empire  see  page  147. 

•  The  following  may  be  confounded  with  muscle  trichinae  in  their 
various  stages  of  development:  Calcareous  concretions  (see  page  203), 
Miescher's  bodies  (see  page  252),  specific  muscle  degeneration  of  the 
hog  (see  page  203),  and  crystals  of  tyrosin  (ham)  ;  their  characteristics 
on  careful  examination  will,  however,  prevent  mistakes.  Vinegar  eels 
may  accidently  gain  access  to  the  preparation,  but  these  are  easily  rec- 
ognized by  their  active  serpentine  movements.  They  are  also  almost 
twice  as  large  as  muscle  trichinae,  and  will  be  found  in  the  fluid  which 
has  been  added,  rarely  between  the  muscle  fibers.  Worms,  similar  to 
embroys  of  Strongylus  paradoxus,  have  been  found  in  preparation  for 
inspection  for  trichina  (Wallman,  Georges,  Tiemann).  They  may  hap- 
pen to  gain  access  as  the  result  of  cutting  the  lungs  of  the  hog,  and  in 
this  way  get  into  the  microscopic  preparation. 

In  addition  to  the  facts  above  mentioned  there  have  been  found  trichina-like 
worms  (so-called  pseudo-tridiinae)  in  the  musculature  of  various  animals  (rat, 
rabbit,  mouse,  fowl,  fish,  mole).  With  any  care  in  examination,  these  are  not  at  all 
likely  to  be  mistaken  for  trichinae.  These  roundworms  never  occur  in  the  muscle 
^heaths,  possess  no  cell-body,  and  taper  at  both  ends.  In  the  case  of  capsule 
formation  they  will  be  found  not  of  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  trichinae  capsule, 
but  of  connective  tissue-like  formation. 

For  details  regarding  Pseudo-trichinae  see  Johne  "Der  Trichinenschauer." 

Judgment. — Trichinosed  meat  is  injurious  to  health  as  its  ingestion 
causes  trichinosis  resulting  fatally  in  10  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  cases.  The 
disease  may  occur  epidemically  when  meat  heavily  infested  with  trichinae  is 
dispensed  in  numerous  small  portions  at  one  time.  It  is  to  be  presumed, 
however,  that  the  trichinosed  meat  has  been  eaten  in  the  raw  state  in  an 
imperfectly  cooked  condition,  or  as  slightly  smoked  ham  or  sausages. 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  251 

The  muscle  trichinae  do  not  resist  very  strenuously  the  usual  methods 
of  preparation  of  meats.  Temperatures  of  plus  62-70°  C.  kill  the 
parasites  by  coagulation  of  the  albumen.  Salting  or  pickling  of  the  meat 
will  not  kill  the  trichinae  in  the  surface  layers  in  less  than  14  days,  and 
those  in  the  deeper  tissues  will  require  4  to  6  weeks  for  their  extermina- 
tion. Hot  smoke  is  effective,  partly  through  the  heat,  partly  through  the 
cresols  of  the  smoke,  thus  destroying  the  trichinae;  but  the  process  is 
rather  a  slow  one  in  large  pieces  of  meat. 

In  decaying  meat  and  under  the  influence  of  low  temperatures  (minus 
15-20°  C.),  the  muscle  trichinae  retain  their  vitality  for  weeks.  Wandering 
trichinae  embryos  are  harmless,  and  muscle  trichinae  continue  their  development  in 
another  host  only  after  the  development  of  the  site  of  the  sexual  parts  and  having 
attained  a  body  length  of  0.5  to  0.75  mm. 

Trichinosed  meat  of  wild  hogs,  dogs,  and  bear  is  to  be  judged  the  same  as  that 
of  domestic  hogs;  examination  for  trichinae  is  absolutely  essential  before  the  meat 
is  to  be  used  for  food. 

Regulations. — Inasmuch  as  infested  meat  can  be  rendered  harmless 
quite  easily  by  the  action  of  high  degrees  of  temperature,  there  is  no  rea- 
son why  trichinosed  meat  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  food  supply  of 
man.  And  the  judgment  on  the  fat,  in  which  trichinae  do  not  occur,  will 
be  more  favorable  even  than  that  of  the  muscles.  For  similar  reasons 
as  in  measles  it  will  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between  slightly  and  heav- 
ily infested  meat.  The  latter  is  the  case  when  microscopic  examination 
of  six  preparations  taken  from  the  pillars  of  the  diaphragm,  and  the  costal 
portions  of  the  diaphragm,  the  laryngeal  and  tongue  muscles  (24  speci- 
mens in  all,  six  of  each)  shows  trichinae  in  nine  or  more  of  the  preparations. 
While  the  strongly  trichinous  muscle  meat,  as  well  as  trichinous  dog 
meat,  is  to  be  considered  unfit  for  use  in  every  case,  slightly  trichinous 
meat,  inclusive  of  the  fat  of  the  strongly  trichinous  hogs,  may  be  consid- 
ered fit,  with  certain  restrictions. 

Legal  Regulations  for  Rendering  Decisions 

In  the  presence  of  trichinae  there  is  to  be  viewed: 

1.  As  unfit — 

(a)  the  entire  body  of  the  hog. 

(b)  the  entire  body,  exclusive  of  the  fat,  of  strongly  trichinosed  hogs. 

2.  As  conditionally  fit — 

(a)  the  entire  animal  body  in  slightly  trichinosed  hogs. 

(b)  the  fat  of  the  hogs  coming  under  I  b. 

The  removal"  or  destruction  of  unfit  trichinosed  meat  may  be  done 
only  by  the  employment  of  high  degrees  of  temperature  or  by  chemically 
effecting  a  dissolution  of  the  soft  parts. 


252  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

5,      General  Diseases  Produced  by  Protozoa 
( a  )     Sarcosporidiosis 

Of  the  sarcosporidia,  which  cause  sarcosporidiosis,  one  genus  inhabits 
the  muscle  fibers  (Miescheria)  and  another  is  found  in  the  connective 
tissue  (Balbiania). 

i.  MIESCHER' s  BODIES. — The  Miescher's  or  psorospermial  bodies, 
which,  according  to  Blanchard,  may  be  subdivided  into  the  genera  Mies- 
cheria and  Sarcocystis  are  found  in  the  musculature  of  hogs,  sheep,  horses, 
cattle,  goats,  dogs,  deer,  antelope,  rabbits  and  chickens.  They  are  com- 
posed of  straight,  faintly  spindle-shaped  structures  of  3  mm.  length  and 
a  width  of  0.006  to  0.4  mm.,  and  lie  within  the  contractile  contents  of  the 
striated  muscle  fibers. 

General  Development. — The  Miescher's  bodies  are  composed  of  a 
delicate  enveloping  membrane,  sending  delicate  fasciculi  into  the  interior. 
The  latter  is  filled  with  spherical  kidney  or  sickle-shaped  bodies  (sporo- 


Fig.  106.  Sacs  of  Miescher  from  hog  muscles ;  a,  b,  longitudinal  and  transverse 
section  of  muscle,  x  60  diam. ;  c,  longitudinal  section  of  muscle,  x  380  diam. 
(after  Ziegler). 

zoites,  Rainey's  bodies),  which  are  probably  without  a  surrounding 
sheath,  but  nucleated.  The  sporozoites  may  decompose  and  form  a  gran- 
ular detritus ;  quite  commonly  there  occurs  calcification  of  the  psoroperms. 
In  what  manner  and  in  what  form  these  parasites  gain  access  to  the  ani- 
mal body  is  as  little  known  as  is  their  development  in  the  animal  body, 
which  probably  is  of  an  embolic  nature. 

Lesions. — The  sacs  of  Miescher  (Sarcocystis  miescheriana)  occur  in 
the  striated  muscles  of  the  hog,  but  are  found  most  frequently  in  the 
abdominal  and  diaphragmatic  muscles.  The  large  sacs,  especially  when 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  253 

calcified,  may  be  seen  macroscopically  as  light  gray,  pointed  or  tapering 
oblong  dots  in  the  dark  musculature,  but  the  smaller  ones  cannot  be  found 
without  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  They  are  found  to  be  peculiarly 
granulated  structures  within  the  otherwise  unchanged  muscle  fiber 
(Fig.  106).  In  the  smaller  sacs,  and  with  a  high  magnification,  the  thor- 
oughly preserved  striation  of  the  muscles  fibers  may  be  made  out  along- 
side of  the  parasite.  After  calcification  has  occurred  the  sac  will  appear 
as  a  more  or  less  opaque,  almost  black  structure  macroscopically.  Of  the 
muscles  of  sheep,  the  abdominal  and  skin  muscles  are  most  frequently 
inhabited,  and  here  very  large  Miescher's  bodies  (Sarcocystis  tenella) 
obtain.  Small  microscopic  sacs  may  occur  in  other  muscles  also.  Not 
infrequently  macroscopic  Miescher's  sacs  (Sarcocystis  bertrami)  are 
found  in  the  neck  and  esophageal  muscles  of  the  horse.  The  Miescher's 
bodies  (Sarcocystis  blanchardi)  are  not  common  in  cattle  in  this  country 
and  may  be  recognized  by  their  millet-seed  to  barley-seed  size  of  yellowish- 
green  appearance. 

Miescher's  bodies,  when  in  the  calcified  state,  may  be  confounded 
with  the  so-called  calcareous  concretions  (lime  deposits)  (see  page  203)  ; 
and,  in  the  hog,  with  calcified  trichinae  (see  page  248).  In  both  cases  the 
addition  of  acetic  acid  will  remove  the  calcification,  and  the  microscopic 
examination  will  reveal  the  substratum  of  the  calcification. 

Judgment. — The  very  fact  that  the  presence  of  Miescher's  sacs  in 
the  muscles  does  not  irritate  the  latter,  nor  produce  any  symptoms  of  dis- 
ease in  the  animals,  would  lead  us  to  conclude  that  these  are  harmless 
parasites.  They  have  not  yet  been  positively  described  as  having  been 
found  in  man ;  nor  has  their  transmission  through  ingestion  of  meat  been 
observed. 

The  report  by  Beel  of  a  disagreeably  sweetish  odor  of  the  meat  in 
the  case  of  a  hog  heavily  infested  with  sarcosporidia,  has  not  been  verified 
by  other  authors. 

Regulations. — The  utility  of  the  meat  infested  with  Miescher's  bodies 
depends  on  the  appearance  of  the  meat  and  the  intensity  of  the  infestation. 

If  the  meat  does  not  show  infestatioji  macroscopically  it  may  be  used 
with  impunity.  If  the  calcified  sacs  are  visible  macroscopically,  and  if  they 
are  present  in  large  numbers  in  all  the  muscles,  or  if  the  meat  (muscula- 
ture) shows  greenish  or  yellowish  spots,  or  if  it  is  aqueous,  then  the 
entire  carcass,  exclusive  of  the  fat,  is  to  be  condemned.  If  the  changes 
are  confined  to  certain  muscles  (sheep,  cattle)  these  are  to  be  condemned. 
In  intermediate  grades  of  infestation  of  the  meat  with  these  parasites  the 
meat  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  trade,  but  considered  as  inferior  meat. 

In  the  cases  of  infestation  with  Miescher's  bodies  in  which  the  meat 
has  been  condemned,  the  fat  is  to  be  rendered ;  in  all  other  cases  it  is  to 
be  treated  as  the  meat  is  treated. 


254  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

2.     BALBIANID^E. — The  Balbianidse  are  designated  as  psorospermial 
pouches  as  compared  with  the  psorospermic  bodies  of  Miescher.     They 
occur  in  the  esophagus  of  sheep,  goats,  horses,  cattle,  buffalos,  and  deer, 
often  in  large  numbers.     They  are  found  more  rarely 
in  the  tongue,  laryngeal,  thoracic,  abdominal  and  eye 
muscles  and  in  the  heart.     On  account  of  their  size 
Railliet  named  them  Balbiani  gigantea. 

Lesions — Finding. — In  the  intermuscular  connective 
tissue  of  the  esophagus  are  found  millet-grain  to 
hazelnut  sized  yellowish-white  cysts,  with  suppurative 
contents,  composed  mainly  of  sporozoites  (Fig.  107). 
Judgment. — On  account  of  their  objectionable  con- 
sistency all  muscle  parts  inhabited  by  Balbianidae  are 
to  be  condemned. 

(b)     Hemosporidiosis 

i.  PIROPLASMOSIS. — Piroplasmoses  are  diseases  of 
the  blood  occasioned  by  protozoa  of  the  genus  Piro- 
plasma  or  Pirosoma.  The  transmission  of  these  para- 
sites is  effected  through  the  medium  of  ticks  (in  Eu- 
Fig.  107.  Esoph-  rope  Ixodes  reduvius  [I.  ricinus],  in  other  places 
Rhipicephalus  or  Mar  gar  opus  [Boophilus]  species). 

(a)  Pifo  plasm  osis  of  cattle. — This  epizootic  or  iso- 
lated, sometimes  acute,  but  more  often  chronic  disease,  is  produced  by  the 
Piroplasma  bigeminum  (Pirosoma  bigem.  Smith  and  Kilborne,  Apiosoma 
bigem.  Wallondeck  Peron,  Ixidio  plasma  bigem.  Schmidt). 

Pathogenesis. — The  parasites  on  gaining  access  to  the  blood  by  trans- 
mission through  ticks,  occasion  destruction  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of 
cattle.  This  results  in  hemoglobinemia ;  and  in  severe  destruction  hemo- 
globinuria  and  icterus  are  caused.  The  cell  detritus  causes  emboli,  hemor- 
rhages, and  parenchymatous  nephritis.  After  considerable  increase  in  the 
number  of  parasites  fever  sets*  in.  In  some  cases  death  from  asthenia 
occurs  as  the  result  of  the  disturbances  of  nutrition  and  rapid  decrease  of 
the  erythrocytes. 

Symptoms — Lesions. — In  the  living  animal  there  may  be  present  symp- 
toms of  fatigue,  emaciation,  fever  of  40-42°  C.,  disturbed  rumination, 
and  in  the  beginning  one  may  observe  irritation  and  even  attacks  of  mad- 
ness. There  is  retention  of  fecal  matter  and  colic ;  later  thin  stools,  with 
mixture  of  mucus  and  blood.  The  milk  secretion  is  diminished.  Later 
there  follow  muscular  tremors,  uncertain  gait,  swelling  of  superficial 
lymph  glands,  reddening  of  the  mucous  membranes,  which  subsequently 
become  pale  and  icteric,  lachrymation,  urine  at  first  reddish,  later  getting 


Parasitic  General  Diseases  255 

darker  and  darker,  foaming  considerably.  It  is  fatal  in  4  to  5  days  in 
unfavorable  cases.  In  the  lighter  forms  of  the  disease  improvement 
occurs  about  the  middle  of  the  first  week  of  the  disease,  the  fever  dimin- 
ishes, but  convalescence  is  as  a  rule  very  slow. 

In  the  slaughtered  animal  one  finds,  according  to  the  stage  of  the 
disease,  catarrhal  stomach  and  intestinal  inflammation  with  small  hemor- 
rhages and  erosions ;  hypertrophy  of  the  liver,  the  latter  being  flabby, 
lusterless,  faintly  reddish-brown,  and  permeated  by  yellowish  bands  and 
spots;  the  spleen  is  considerably  enlarged,  the  pulp  highly  injected  and 
softened ;  urinary  bladder  is  filled  with  light  to  dark  red  urine ;  the  mucous 


(3 


Fig.  108.  Piroplasma  bigeminum.  Typical  ring  and  pearl-shaped  forms.  The 
upper  row  stained  with  alkaline  methylene  blue;  the  lower  according  to  Romanow- 
sky  (after  Kossel  and  Weber  from  Hutyra  and  Marek). 


membrane  shows  numerous  hemorrhages :  there  is  cloudy  swelling  of  the 
kidneys;  hemorrhages  in  the  serous  membranes;  the  blood  is  light  red 
and  thin ;  icterus  is  present  in  some  cases. 

The  recognition  of  the  disease  is  facilitated  during  life  by  finding 
the  parasites  on  microscopic  examination  of  the  blood. 

Dried  cover-glass  preparations  are  fixed  in  absolute  alcohol,  or  in  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  ether,  and  stained  with  a  I  per  cent. 
aqueous  solution  of  methylene  blue. 

In  the  differential  diagnosis  we  must  consider  anthrax,  hemorrhagic 
septicemia,  and  hematuria :  the  symptoms  in  these  diseases,  as  well  as 
their  bacteriologic  findings,  differ  in  important  features  from  those  of 
piroplasmosis. 

The  judgment  will  depend  on  the  grade  of  the  disease  and  on  the 
fact  that  this  affection  is  not  transmissible  to  man  by  ingestion  of  the 
meat.  In  severe  cases  of  the  disease  the  meat  is  to  be  condemned;  in 
lighter  forms  the  question  of  inferior  value  will  have  to  be  considered. 


256  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

[Carcasses  affected  with  Texas  fever  should  be  condemned,  according 

to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  14.] 

Of  the  more  important  piroplasmoses  should  be  mentioned : 

i.     Texas  fever  of  cattle,  which  occasions  tremendous  losses  in  the 

United  States  of  North  America,  and  has  necessitated  the  law  preventing 

importation  of  American  cattle. 


Fig.  109  Fig.  1 10 

Fig.  109.  Piroplasma  bigeminum.  Round  and  pear-shaped  forms.  Cattle  blood. 
Stained  with  methylene  blue  (after  Hutyra  and  Marek). 

Fig.  no.  Piroplasma  bigeminum.  Rod-shaped  forms.  Cattle  blood.  Stained 
according  to  Laveran  (after  Hutyra  and  Marefc). 


Diseases  of  cattle  similar  in  their  intensity  and  rate  of  mortality  to 
Texas  fever  occur  in  German  East  Africa,  Hungary  (forest  disease), 
Roumania  (epizootic  hemoglobinuria) ,  Italy  (malaria  of  cattle),  Sardinia 
(hematuria),  Finland,  Turkey,  Argentine  Republic  (tristeza),  Australia 
(tick  fever),  South  Africa  (redwater,  or  coast  fever). 

2.  Infectious  hemoglobinuria    of    cattle    (enzootic    bloody    urine), 
occurs  sporadically  in  Germany  as  well  as  enzootically.     It  differs  from 
Texas  fever  by  a  longer  period  of  incubation  and  a  milder  course. 

3.  The  South  African  horse  malaria  (Geglielmi,  Rickmann),  which 
is  frequently  associated  with  a  separate  and  distinct  enzootic  disease  of 
horses,  described  by  Theiler. 

4.  Carceag  or   parasitic   ictero-hematuria  of   sheep   in   Roumania, 
which  also  occurs  in  other  countries  (malarial  catarrhal  fever). 

5.  Malignant  jaundice  of  dogs  in  France,  Hungary,  Italy,  Africa, 
and  India  (malignant  malarial  fever,  malignant  protozoan  jaundice). 

2.  Trypaowsoma. —  (a)  Surra,  tsetse-fly  disease  or  nagana  of  cattle 
(gall  sick,  Theiler)  camels,  horses  (Mai  de  caderas),  and  elephants  in 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  257 

Africa  and  India  are  caused  by  flagellate 
infusoria  (trypanosomes),  and  are  without 
importance  in  meat  inspection. 

(b)  The  investigations  of  Schneider  and 
Buffard  indicated  that  dourine  of  horses 
must  also  be  classified  as  a  protozoan  dis- 
ease and  the  results  of  these  investigators 
were  confirmed  by  Nocard  who  found  that 
a  trypanosoma  was  the  cause  of  the  disease. 

At  the  present  time  this  disease  is  of  no 
r  i  g.       in.         1  rypanosoma 

equinum  s.  Elmassiani.  Guinea      importance    from    a    sanitary    police    stand- 
pig   blood    (after    Hutyra   and 
Marek).  POmt 


6,     Infectious  Diseases 

A.     Infectious  Diseases   of  Food  Animals  Transmissible  to  Man 

1.     Tuberculosis 

Tuberculosis  occurs  among  all  food-producing  animals,  and  is  the 
disease  with  which  the  veterinary  inspector  is  mostly  occupied.  Etiolog- 
ically  it  is  identical  with  tuberculosis  of  man,  and  is  caused  by  the  tuber- 
cle bacillus  discovered  by  Koch  in  1882.  The  disease  in  animals  runs  a 
chronic  course. 

Patho genesis. — The  development  of  the  disease  requires  a  certain 
predisposition  in  the  body  which  affords  favorable  colonizing  conditions 
for  the  entering  tubercle  bacilli.  The  disease  may,  according  to  the  mode 
of  infection,  become  established  in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Through  the  respiratory  tract  (Inhalation  tuberculosis). 

2.  Through  the  digestive  tract  ( Ingestion  tuberculosis). 

3  Through  the  female  genital  organs  (Genital  infection.  Generative 
tuberculosis). 

4.  Through  the  skin  (Cutaneous  tuberculosis). 

5.  From  the  umbilical  vein  during  intra-uterine  development  of  the 
fetus    (Fetal  tuberculosis.  Congenital  tuberculosis). 

Although  in  accordance  writh  these  modes  of  infection  the  primary 
lesion  of  the  disease  is  expected  to  be  present  in  the  respective  organs, 
nevertheless  it  frequently  happens  that  the  tubercle  bacilli  will  not  pro- 
duce an  affection  at  the  seat  of  entrance  but  will  be  disseminated 
throughout  the  body  and  only  cause  lesions  remote  from  the  place  of 
entry. 
18 


258 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


The  fact  that  lymph  glands  offer  especially  favorably  conditions  for 
colonization  and  development  of  tubercle  bacilli  is  of  importance  in  meat 
inspection,  and  they  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  favorite  locations 
for  tuberculosis. 

As  soon  as  tubercle  bacilli  find  conditions  favorable  for  development 
in  any  tissue  of  the  body  they  multiply  and  cause  a  reaction  of  that  tissue. 

This     makes     itself     manifest     as     a 

^  ^-(        "^fl  \fc.  %\  round    cell    proliferation,    which    ap- 

pears either  in  the  form  of  an  isolated 
tubercle  or  as  a  tuberculous  infiltra- 
tion. The  isolated  tubercle  in  its  de- 
veloped condition  forms  a  gray,  trans- 
parent, nonvascular,  cellular  nodule  of 
the  size  of  a  millet  seed  which  en- 
closes tubercle  bacilli.  Amongst  these 
cells  there  develop,  as  a  rule,  multi- 
nuclear  giant  cells,  which  are  central- 
ly located.  In  the  case  of  tuberculous 
infiltration,  principally  exudative  proc- 
esses of  a  fibrous  nature  appear. 
Soon  retrogressive  processes  take  place  from  the  center  of  the  tubercle, 
as  a  result  of  which  the  latter  becomes  clouded  and  changes  to  a  grayish 
or  yellowish- white  color;  the  tubercle  becomes  caseous  (coagulation 


Fig.  112.  Tubercle  bacilli.  Fuchsin 
and  methylen  blue  staining,  x  400 
diam.  (after  Ziegler). 


^^MCMvi^ 
^^^^'^iS^W 


-- 


Fig.  113 


Fig.  114 


Fig.  113.  Changes  in  the  tissue  produced  by  a  fresh  invasion  of  tubercle 
bacilli  (after  Baumgarten)  :  a,  proliferating  connective  tissue;  b,  cross-section  of 
blood-vessel;  c,  karyomitosis  in  connective  tissue;  d,  karyomitosis  of  an  endothelial 
cell  of  a  vessel ;  e,  migrated  leucocytes,  x  350  diameters. 

Fig.  114.  Giant  cell  containing  bacilli  from  a  tubercle  with  necrotic  center. 
x  350  diameters  (after  Ziegler). 

necrosis  with  secondary  granular  disintegration).  In  the  tuberculous 
infiltration  the  retrogressive  processes  consist  of  a  more  purely  coagula- 
tion necrosis,  e.  g.,  hyaline  degeneration.  If  the  periphery  of  the  tubercle 
does  not  disintegrate  it  will  gradually  become  fibrous,  and  caseo-fibrous 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  259 

tubercle  develops.  The  formation  of  entirely  fibrous  tubercles  in  food 
animals,  excepting  in  the  horse,  is  rare.  These  processes  are  followed 
by  a  further  retrogressive  metamorphosis,  that  of  calcification  of  the 
tubercle,  which  is  of  especial  importance  in  food  animals.  Suppuration 
of  the  tubercle  and  the  formation  of  abscesses  or  cavities  may  result  from 
a  simultaneous  infection  with  pus-forming  organisms,  or,  as  Bongert  has 
proven  in  case  of  cattle,  it  may  result  when  tubercle  bacilli  die  gradually 
in  great  numbers.  Abscesses  and  cavities  occur  comparatively  rarely  in 
food  animals.  Ulcers,  however,  may  be  formed  as  a  result  of  the  casea- 
tion  of  tubercles  located  on  the  surface  of  mucous  membranes. 

Notwithstanding  the  degenerative  processes  within  the  tubercle,  the 
latter  may  increase  continually  in  size  on  the  outside  and  thus  develop 
into  larger  nodules  and  tubercles.  The  confluence  of  small  nodules  may 
lead  to  the  formation  of  conglomerates  or  to  new  formations  of  a  fibrous 
character. 

The  method  of  dissemination  of  tuberculosis  and  its  metastatic  for- 
mations are  of  especial  importance  in  the  judgment  of  tuberculous  ani- 
mals, and  take  place  as  follows : 

1.  Dissemination   by   the   Lymphatic   System. — Lymphatic   miliary 
tubercles  are  formed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  primary  tubercle  and  the 
lymph  glands  involved  become  diseased.     By  means  of  the  further  dis- 
semination of  the  tubercle  bacilli  by  the  lymphatic  fluid  other  lymphatic 
glands  lying  nearer  the  heart  and  finally  the  lymph  of  the  thoracic  duct 
and  the  blood  itself  may  become  infected. 

As  the  lymphatic  fluid  flows  from  the  inside  of  the  organs  toward 
their  surface  (e.  g.,  toward  the  corresponding  lymphatic  glands),  it 
becomes  self-evident  that  an  infection  of  the  organ  cannot  be  in  an  inward 
direction  from  the  surface.  Should  the  bacilli  enter  the  lymph  of  the 
thoracic  or  abdominal  cavities,  then  not  only  the  serous  membranes  may 
become  infected  (serous  tuberculosis)  but  the  bacilli  may  also  enter  the 
adjoining  cavity  through  the  lymph  spaces  of  the  diaphragm. 

2.  Dissemination  by  means  of  the  blood  may  take  place  after  the 
entry  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  blood  in  the  above-described  \vay,  or  also 
after  a  direct  penetration  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  blood  stream,  when 
the  walls  of  the  veins  become  diseased  or  destroyed  by  caseation  of  tuber- 
culous foci.     As  a  result  of  the  dissemination  of  the  tubercle  bacilli  by 
means  of  the  blood  a  hematogenous  miliary  tuberculosis  (embolic  tuber- 
culosis) develops  at  the  point  where  the  bacilli  are  deposited  and  multiply. 
The  bacilli  which  have  come  into  the  venous  blood  may  be  retained  in  the 
lungs,  and  if  their  penetration  occurred  at  the  basic  region  of  the  portal 
vein  they  may  be  retained  in  the  liver,  which  is  not  at  all  unusual  in  mild 
infection  of  the  blood.     When  the  venous  blood  is  flooded  with  great 


OF  TH£ 


UNIVERSITY   J 


260  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

numbers  of  tubercle  bacilli,  or  when  the  latter  enter  the  veins  of  the  lungs 
they  pass  into  the  arterial  blood  of  the  large  circulatory  system  and 
thereby  into  the  whole  body.  This  process  of  dissemination  is  known  as 
"generalized  tuberculosis." 

In  the  dissemination  of  tubercle  bacilli  through  the  large  circulatory 
system  the  placenta  may  also  become  infected  and  from  there  infection 
may  spread  to  the  fetus. 

3.  Dissemination  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  on  the  Surface  of  Mucous 
Membrane  by  Means  of  Secretions. — This  process  may  not  only  transmit  a 
further  infection  of  the  organs  belonging  to  the  affected  apparatus 
(larynx,  trachea,  bronchi,  and  other  parts  of  the  lungs;  lymph  glands  of 
the  palate,  small  and  large  intestines),  but  it  may  also  lead  to  the  infec- 
tion of  another  organ  or  tract.  Thus  infection  of  the  digestive  apparatus 
may  result  in  consequence  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  if  the  tuberculous 
excretions  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membranes  are  swallowed.  To 
the  first-mentioned  form  of  dissemination  belongs  also  the  spreading  of 
tubercle  bacilli  from  the  kidneys  by  means  of  the  urine  to  the  pelvis  of  the 
kidneys,  ureters,  bladders,  or  to  the  urethra. 

Meat  inspection  must  distinguish  between  two  forms  of  tuberculosis 
in  accordance  with  the  aforesaid  methods  of  dissemination. 

1.  Localised    Tuberculosis. — This   term   designates    the     following- 
conditions  : 

(a)  The  infection  of  a  single  part  of  the  body  with  the  correspond- 
ing lymph  glands.     This  form  of  tuberculosis  is  most  frequent  in  food- 
producing  animals  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  bacilli  in  the  tuber- 
culous processes. 

(b)  Infection  of  several  parts  of  the  body  without  the  concurrence 
of  the  large  circulatory  system.     Accordingly  it  deals  with  tuberculous 
processes  which  have  originated  from  a  primary  infection  by  continuous 
development  through  dissemination  of  the  bacilli  by  means  of  the  lym- 
phatic or  secretive  juices,  and,  as  far  as  the  blood  enters  into  considera- 
tion, through  the  portal  circulation. 

2.  Generalized    Tuberculosis   exists    when   a   part   of  the   body   is 
affected  to  which  the  tubercle  bacilli  can  be  taken  by  the  arterial  blood 
only   (e.  g.,  spleen,  kidneys,  suprarenal  glands,  testicles,  ovaries,  udder 
[Plate   i],  bones,  muscles,  body  lymph  glands,  central  nervous  system, 
eyes,  etc.).     The  number  and  consistence  of  tuberculous  processes  which 
develop  in  the  generalized  cases  depend  upon  the  degree  of  prevalence 
of  bacilli  in  the  blood  and  upon  the  filterable  action  of  the  liver  and  lungs. 
When  the  latter  is  very  marked    many  bacilli  are  retained  by  these  organs, 
and  both  lungs  and  liver  are   found  to  be   everywhere  uniformly  per- 
meated with  tubercular  nodules  of  a  similar  stage  of  development  (hema- 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  261 

togenous  miliary  tuberculosis).  Acute  miliary  tuberculosis  is  spoken  of 
when  the  dissemination  of  tubercle  bacilli  by  means  of  blood  occurs  only 
shortly  preceding  the  death  of  the  animal,  resulting  in  the  production  in 
most  of  the  organs  of  a  countless  number  of  eruptions  of  tubercles  of 
uniform  size  which  are  only  slightly  degenerated.  When  the  venous 
blood  is  poor  in  bacilli  only  a  few  single  tubercles  will  develop  in  the  liver 
and  lungs.  The  presence  of  numerous  embolic  tubercles  in  the  lungs  has 
a  prominent  diagnostic  significance,  as  it  positively  indicates  infection  of 
the  blood  with  numerous  tubercle  bacilli  and  thereby  points  to  the  suspi- 
cion of  generalized  tuberculosis. 

Generalization  of  tuberculosis,  which  is  not  a  frequent  occurrence 
among  food  animals,  does  not  lead  to  uniform  development  of  tubercles 
in  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  arrangement  of  the  blood  vessels  in  the 
various  organs  and  the  extent  of  circulation  of  the  blood,  in  the  organs 
is  essentially  decisive.  Generalized  tuberculosis,  in  addition  to  the  already 
mentioned  lesions  of  the  lungs  and  liver,  is  usually  found  in  the  spleen 
and  kidneys,  in  the  various  body  lymph  glands,  in  the  bones  and  joints, 
and  in  the  udder  and  uterus;  tuberculosis  of  the  latter,  however,  does 
not  indicate  a  generalized  condition  in  every  instance  (e.  g.,  passing  of 
tubercle  bacilli  from  the  abdominal  cavity  through  the  Fallopian  tubes 
into  the  uterus).  The  muscles  proper  are  so  extraordinarily  rarely 
affected  that  by  many  they  have  been  considered  as  almost  immune  to 
tuberculosis.  That  those  tubercle  bacilli  which  enter  the  circulatory 
system  but  are  not  deposited  in  any  of  the  organs  die  in  from  4  to  6  days 
is  an  important  fact  which  was  established  by  Xocard  and  others. 

Prevalence  of  Tuberculosis  in  Food  Anitnals. — The  statement  made  by  Ostertag 
that  "at  least  25  per  cent,  of  the  older  cattle  are  tuberculous"  is  perfectly  true. 

According  to  meat-inspection  statistics  of  the  German  Empire  the  percentage  of 
tuberculosis  in  animals  slaughtered  in  1904  was  as  follows : 

Cattle,  17.88  per  cent  ;  calves,  0.26;  sheep,  0.20;  goats,  0.69;  hogs,  2.46;  horses, 
0.15;  dogs,  0.85. 

Tuberculosis  in  cattle  was  most  prevalent  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  with 
34.48  per  cent.,  Schaumburg-Lippe  being  lowest  with  5.73  per  cent. 

Tuberculosis  in  calves  was  most  prevalent  in  Pommerania  (Prussia)  with  0.79 
per  cent.,  while  Alsace-Lorraine  was  lowest  with  0.02  per  cent. 

The  Kingdom  of  Saxony  also  had  the  highest  percentage  of  tuberculosis  in 
Logs  with  5.13  per  cent.,  Hohenzollern  being  lowest  with  0.30  per  cent. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  appearance  of  tuberculosis  can 
be  only  briefly  described  here.  The  symptoms  become  of  diagnostic 
importance  only  when  they  are  conspicuous,  and  when  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  affection  has  reached  an  advanced  stage.  Even  then  they  are  not 
reliable.  Highly  suspicious  symptoms  in  all  food  animals  are  hard,  nodu- 
lar swellings  of  the  lymph  glands,  udder,  or  testicles,  painless  exostosis 
and  swellings  of  joints,  which  cannot  be  attributed  to  other  causes,  cough- 


262  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


ing,  difficulty  in  breathing  with  very  apparent  loss  of  flesh.  Hard,  tight 
skin  and  a  rough  coat  of  hair,  chronic  bloating,  hardening  of  the  udder, 
and  dry  rattling  may  be  additional  indications  in  cattle.  The  symptoms 
which  arouse  suspicion  in  hogs — among  which  nutritive  disturbances  are 
rare — are  principally  exostosis  and  curvature  of  the  spine  without  rha- 
chitic  symptoms. 

Other  methods  for  diagnosing  tuberculosis  in  the  live  animal  (ante- 
mortem  inspection)  cannot  be  given  in  detail  here. 

The  lesions  present  in  the  slaughtered  animal  differ  in  the  various 
species. 

In  cattle  tuberculosis  occurs  principally  in  two  different  forms,  which, 

however,  are  often  com- 
bined— namely,  tuberculo- 
sis of  the  serous  mem- 
branes (pearly  disease), 
and  tuberculosis  of  the 
organs.  The  former  be- 
gins with  reddish,  soft, 
granulation-like  prolifera- 
tions, from  which  large 
nodules  of  various  sizes 
are  developed  (see  Figs. 
115  and  116),  and  which, 
either  when  isolated  or 
confluent,  show  a  ten- 
dency to  become  calcified 
early!  Occasionally  enor- 
mous, thick,  fibrous  or 
calcified  tuberculous  de- 
posits are  formed  on  the 
commonly  diseased  pleura 
and  pericardium.  Perito- 
neal tuberculosis  is  some- 
what less  common. 

Concerning  tuberculo- 
sis of  the  organs  and  mu- 
cous membranes  the  res- 
piratory apparatus  is  most 
often  the  primary  seat  of 

the  affection  (tuberculous  bronchial  pneumonia)  ;  next  comes  the  digestive 
tract,  while  the  female  genital  organs  are  very  seldom  affected.  In  the 
lungs  there  are  now  and  then  cavities.  In  the  intestines  of  cattle  the 
result  is  occasionally  a  uniformly  marked  thickening  and  coarse  wrink- 
ling of  the  mucous  membrane,  which  represents  a  diffused  epithelioid 


-Fig.  115.     Small    nodular    tubercles    from    the 
pleura  of  a  cow 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc. 


infiltration  without  the  formation  of  nodules  (Johne  and  Frothingham, 
Rieck,  Markus,  Bongert,  and  others),  and  in  which  caseation  and  ulcera- 
tions  cannot  be  determined.1 

All  parts  of  the  body  may  be  secondarily  infected.  The  manifestation 
of  the  disease  is  influenced  by  the  nature  and  the  mode  of  infection  as 
well  as  by  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  various  organs.  Lymph  gland 
tuberculosis  (see  Plate  II,  Fig.  3)  is  often  conspicuous  for  its  enormous 
development.  For  tuberculosis  of  the  udder  compare  Plate  I. 

Tuberculous  processes  in  cattle  tend  generally  toward  dry  caseation 
and  calcification.  Tuberculosis  of  any  organ  in  which  the  lesions  are  soft- 
ened may  develop 
into  generalized  tu- 
berculosis ;  the  lat- 
ter is  characterized 
in  young  animals  in 
the  first  place  by 
an  affection  of  the 
spleen,  in  older  ani- 
mals by  involvement 
of  the  kidneys.  Tu- 
berculosis of  the 
bones  is  not  very 
common ;  on  the 
other  hand  it  is  not 
uncommon  that  the 
body  lymph  glands 
become  diseased 
without  being  ac- 
companied by  a 
similar  affection  in 
the  spleen  and  kid- 
neys. 

Corresponding  to 
the  transmission  of 
the  disease  by  the 
placenta,  calves  very 
frequently  manifest 


Fig.  116.     Large  nodular  tubercles  from  the  p!eura  of 
a  cow 


[1Recently  it  hjas  been  satisfactorily  shown  by  Bang,  McFadyean  and  others 
that  these  intestinal  lesions  are  not  due  to  the  tubercle  bacillus,  but  to  a  somewhat 
similar  acid-proof  bacillus  which  produces  this  hypertrophy  of  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  to  which  the  names  of  Johne's  disease,  chronic  pseudo-tuberculous 
enteritis,  and  chronic  bacterial  dysentery  have  been  given.] 


264  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

embolic  tuberculosis  of  the  various  organs;  first  of  all,  in  the  liver,  portal 
glands,  lungs,  posterior  mediastinum,  spleen  and  kidneys,  but  the  disease 
may  also  result  and  spread  by  infection  from  the  digestive  tract.  General- 
ization occurs  in  a  majority  of  cases. 

Tuberculosis,  although  comparatively  seldom  found  in  sheep,  pre- 
sents in  a  general  way  the  conditions  and  appearance  of  tuberculosis  in 
cattle.  Lesions  of  the  serous  membranes  occur  also,  although  they  are  not 
so  common  as  in  cattle.  Calcification  takes  place  at  a  comparatively  early 
period. 

This  disease  appears  also  in  a  similar  form  in  goats,  in  which  pearly- 
disease  and  lesions  in  the  lungs  of  a  similar  nature  to  those  found  in 
human  phthisis  (cavity  formation)  have  been  observed.  [Generalized 
tuberculosis  is  not  uncommon  among  sheep  and  goats  in  Germany,  but  is 
extremely  rare  among  these  species  in  the  United  States.] 

In  hogs  tuberculous  affections  occur  most  frequently  in  the  digestive 
tract  from  which  secondary  infection  of  the  various  organs,  especially 
liver  and  lungs,  and  very  often  also  generalized  tuberculosis  result,  which 
are  characterized  by  tuberculosis  of  the  spleen  in  the  majority  of  cases. 
Primary  respiratory  tuberculosis  is  less  common  than  in  cattle,  while 
lesions  of  the  serous  membranes  are  even  more  rare.  Calcification  in  the 
tuberculous  foci  begins  at  an  early  period.  In  generalized  tuberculosis  the 
lymph  glands  of  the  muscles  and  bones  are  often  affected.  Junack  has 
described  "tuberculosis  without  retrogressive  alterations  in  swine."  In 
one  case  in  which  a  hog  became  so  diseased  the  condition  resembled 
sarcomatosis.  (Plates  IV,  V,  VII.) 

Tuberculosis  in  the  horse,  which  is  very  infrequently  observed,  resem- 
bles tuberculosis  in  cattle,  but  does  not  possess  a  tendency  to  calcify ;  it 
does,  however,  tend  to  soften  at  the  center. 

The  formation  of  small  fibrous  tubercles  is  not  uncommon.  The 
lymph  glands  of  the  affected  organs  become  considerably  hyperplastic. 
Infection  spreads  principally  from  the  lungs. 

The  general  appearance  of  tuberculosis  in  the  dog  suggests  the  con- 
ditions found  in  the  goat,  but  the  tuberculous  lesions  in  the  lungs  and 
lymph  glands  are  of  a  more  grayish-white  color,  similar  in  consistence  to 
bone  marrow.  Instead  of  caseation  there  is  degeneration  into  grayish- 
white  decomposing  masses  which  resemble  whey. 

In  carrying  out  the  general  method  of  examination  at  the  post-mortem 
inspection  for  tuberculosis,  the  following  directions  should  be  observed : 

i.  All  lymph  glands  located  at  the  portal  of  entry  of  the  infection 
must  be  carefully  incised ;  first  of  all  the  submaxillary  and  retropharangeal 
lymph  glands,  tonsils,  bronchial,  mediastinal,  mesenteric,  and  portal  lymph 
glands. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  265 

2.  Cutting  into  plainly  visible  seats  of  tuberculous  affection,  espe- 
cially cavities,  should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  owing  to  the  dissemination 
of  tuberculous  material.      Contamination  of  the  meat  with  tuberculous 
material  must  also  be  carefully  guarded  against.     Soiled  knives  must  be 
used  only  after  boiling  in  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  soda. 

3.  In  an  animal  which  is  found  to  be  tuberculous  the  parts  which 
are  least  often  affected    (lymph  glands  of  the  muscles,  spleen,  kidneys, 
udder,  bones)    should  be  examined  first.     Von  Stroh  records  some  inter- 
esting studies  concerning  the  prevalence  of  tuberculosis  of  the  lymph 
glands  of  the  muscles. 

Identification  of  the  common  forms  of  tuberculosis  is  not  difficult  for 
the  inspector,  when  once  he  is  familiar  with  the  manifold  variations  in  the 
form  of  development  of  tuberculous  processes  and  their  metamorphosis. 
The  lymph  glands,  as  has  repeatedly  been  emphasized,  form  a  predilectory 
point  for  the  development  of  tubercle  bacilli  and  the  specific  condition  of 
the  lymph  gland  is  therefore  of  especial  importance  for  diagnosis  (Plate 
II,  Fig.  3).  The  condition  of  the  lymphatic  glands  also  verifies  diagnosis 
of  doubtful  affections  of  organs,  since  it  may  generally  be  considered  that 
at  least  one  of  the  corresponding  glands  will  be  typically  affected  in  tuber- 
culosis of  the  organs. 

It  need  not  be  emphasized  that  the  characteristic  conditions  of  devel- 
opment and  structure  of  tuberculous  granulations  from  the  most  diminu- 
tive transparent  grayish  nodules,  which  at  first  become  clouded  at  the 
center  after  which  they  degenerate,  together  with  the  tendency  to  spread 
to  the  surrounding  tissues  by  the  formation  of  secondary  nodules,  are  also 
indications  worthy  of  cognizance.  Ostertag  recommends  a  microscopic 
examination  (at  about  40  diameters)  of  a  crushed  sample,  in  order  to 
determine  with  certainty  the  character  of  doubtful  nodules.  By  this 
method  one  can  plainly  see  the  round  or  elongated  giant  cells,  which,  as  it 
is  well  known,  are  especially  nicely  developed  in  the  tubercles  of  domestic 
animals.  This  method  is  also  said  to  be  well  adapted  for  the  examination  of 
lymph  glands  for  tuberculous  foci,  which  cannot  be  determined  macroscop- 
ically ;  they  appear  conspicuous  from  the  surrounding  normal  lymph  gland 
tissue  by  disclosing  round,  colony-like  cloudy  spots  with  giant  cells  in  the 
center  and  epithelioid  cells  around  the  outside. 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  demonstration  of  the  presence  of  tubercle 
bacilli  also  serves  to  make  diagnosis  positive,  although  an  effort  to  deter- 
mine their  presence  may  result  in  failure  even  in  genuine  tuberculosis.  It 
has  been  experimentally  determined  that  in  strongly  caseated  or  calcified 
foci,  attempts  to  find  bacilli  often  fail,  especially  in  tuberculosis  of  swine. 
Such  foci  are,  however,  infectious,  which  can  be  proved  by  animal  experi- 
ment. This,  however,  cannot  be  utilized  for  practical  meat  inspection  on 
account  of  the  delay  in  the  decision  which  it  would  cause. 


266  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

The  following-named  conditions  may  be  mistaken  for  tuberculous 
lesions : 

1.  Degenerated  echinococci  and  measles  (pages  235  and  239). 

2.  Actinomycotic  processes  (page  273). 

3.  Pentastome  colonies  in  the  lymph  glands   (page  234,  Plate  II, 

Fig.  4)- 

4.  Strongyle  nodules  in  the  lung  of  sheep  (page  226). 

5.  Lesions  of  hog  cholera  (page  306).     , 

The  characteristic  indications  of  these  diseases  are  sufficiently  dis- 
cussed under  their  respective  heads,  and  when  compared  with  the  char- 
acteristic pathological  peculiarities  of  tuberculosis  they  assure  definite 
results  in  diagnosing  the  latter,  such  diagnosis  being  in  addition  based  on 
the  appearance  of  the  lymph  glands  and  the  result  of  a  microscopic 
examination. 

Virulence  of  the  Tissues  of  Tuberculous  Animals 

In  testing  the  question  as  to  the  extent  to  which  tuberculous  changes 
in  food  animals  may  become  dangerous  to  human  health  as  a  result  of 
their  utilization  as  food,  one  cannot  avoid  the  premise  that  the  tubercle 
bacillus  of  animals  is  identical  with  the  bacillus  which  causes  human  tuber- 
culosis. And  as  tubercle  bacilli  entering  the  digestive  tract  of  man  are 
apt  to  produce  tuberculosis,  and  also  since  virulent  tubercle  bacilli  are 
found  in  the  tuberculous  parts  of  food  animals,  it  follows  that  all  organs 
and  parts  of  carcasses  which  are  tuberculous  must  be  regarded  as  infec- 
tious and  dangerous  to  human  health.  Animals  in  which  only  the  lymph 
glands  are  diseased  belong  in  this  category,  as  it  is  very  possible  that 
small,  virulent  tuberculous  foci  in  the  earliest  stage  of  development  have 
been  overlooked  at  the  macroscopical  examination  of  the  parenchyma  of 
the  organs.  This  fact  makes  it  self-evident  that  tuberculous  organs  must 
be  considered  as  totally  unwholesome,  even  when  only  a  few  scattered 
lesions  may  apparently  occur  therein. 

In  regard  to  the  virulence  of  the  meat,  e.  g.,  the  striated  muscles,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  musculature  is  very  infrequently  the  seat  of 
tuberculous  processes,  that  as  a  rule  tubercle  bacilli  are  carried  to  the 
muscles  by  the  blood  only,  and  that  they  occur  in  the  blood  rarely,  and 
then  they  remain  in  the  circulation  cnly  for  a  short  period  of  time. 

Numerous  experiments  in  feeding  and  inoculation  have  been  con- 
ducted on  animals  to  test  the  virulence  of  tuberculous  meat,  but  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out  by  Ostertag,  the  dissemination  or  extent  and 
special  charcter  of  the  tuberculous  affection  in  the  animal,  from  which  the 
sample  of  muscle  was  taken,  were  entirely  disregarded.  Ostertag  sum- 
marizes the  results  of  these  experiments  by  saying  that  "muscle  or  juice 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  267 

of  muscle  from  tuberculous  animals  does  not,  as  a  rule,  contain  any  or  not 
sufficient  bacilli  to  produce  tuberculosis  in  experimental  animals."  The 
meat  is  infectious  only  in  the  most  advanced  stage  of  tuberculosis,  and 
when  suppurative  softening  of  the  tuberculous  lesions  are  present.  In 
connection  with  this  it  must  also  be  considered  that,  although  the  suscepti- 
bility of  man  to  tuberculosis  is  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  experi- 
mental animals,  yet  the  number  of  bacilli  which  will  produce  tuberculosis 
on  intraperitoneal  inoculation  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  it  by  their  intro- 
duction into  the  digestive  tract,  and  that,  therefore,  a  positive  result 
from  inoculation  does  not  imply  that  the  meat  is  unwholesome  for 
food.  Even  the  most  recent  investigations  along  this  line  by  Hoefnagel, 
WestenhoefFer,  Swierstra,  in  which  the  condition  of  the  tuberculous  ani- 
mal, the  extent  of  the  affection,  and  the  nature  of  the  tuberculous  proc- 
esses were  carefully  taken  into  consideration,  have  corroborated  Oster- 
tag's  view. 

From  the  same  standpoint  should  be  considered  the  results  of  the 
experiments  regarding  the  blood  and  the  muscle  juice  from  tuberculous 
animals. 

Notwithstanding  all  this,  one  must  take  into  consideration,  from  a 
meat-inspection  standpoint,  that  muscle  is  not  the  only  form  of  meat 
which  must  be  considered,  or  that  the  term  '  meat"  does  not  include  the 
striated  musculature  only ;  it  also  includes  other  constituents  of  meat,  the 
lymph  glands  and  bones  of  which  especially  are  not  uncommonly  affected 
by  tuberculosis  when  the  disease  has  become  generalized  in  the  body. 
Precaution  is  therefore  necessary  in  judging  generalized  tuberculosis. 

In  the  utilization  of  meat  from  tuberculous  animals  the  fact  that  the 
tubercle  bacilli  possess  only  a  small  degree  of  resistance  to  high  grades  of 
temperature  is  of  great  importance  to  national  economy.  According  to 
Bang,  85°  C.  for  a  period  of  ten  minutes  will  suffice  to  kill  tubercle  bacilli, 
while  Yersin  and  Forster  give  70  to  75°  C.  at  ten  minues  as  sufficient.  On 
this  is  based  the  utilization  of  the  meat  of  tuberculous  animals  after 
cooking. 

Tubercle  bacilli  are  very  resistant  to  pickling  and  to  smoking  and 
pickling. 

In  the  judgment  of  tuberculous  lesions  of  food  animals  by  the  veteri- 
nary inspector  in  connection  with  their  harmfulness  to  man,  the  things  to 
be  considered  are  the  extent  of  the  affection  and  stage  of  development,  the 
age  and  nature  of  the  tuberculous  changes,  and  the  nutritive  condition  of 
the  animal. 

In  general  a  poor  nutritive  condition,  especially  extreme  emaciation, 
will  unfavorably  influence  the  judgment. 

The  same  is  true  regarding  the  age  of  the  tuberculous  lesions  when 
fresh  disease  processes  exist,  and  especially  when  the  latter  are  contiguous 
to  the  old  infections.  A  fresh  "blood  infection"  ( fresh  generalized  condi- 


268 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


tion,  acute  miliary  tuberculosis  in  the  most  restricted  sense),  is  present 
only  when  the  spleen  or  the  lymph  glands  are  swollen,  or  when  very  small 
tubercles,  not  over  the  size  of  a  millet  seed,  which  have  developed  by  way 
of  the  large  circulatory  system,  are  present.  Fresh  blood  infection,  which 
as  a  rule  is  seldom  found  in  food  animals,  demands  careful  examination 
and  consideration. 

Precaution  is  recommended  owing  to  the  nature  of  tuberculous  mate- 
rials in  the  soft  tuberculous  processes  (cavities  and  purulent  cheesy 
abscesses),  as  a  generalized  condition  is  easily  associated  with  them. 

Regarding  the  extension  of  tuberculosis  the  forms  mentioned  on 
page  260  should  be  clearly  distinguished. 

The  judgment  of  individual  cases  of  tuberculosis  must  proceed 
according  to  the  following  outline  which  has  been  made  public  in  con- 
nection with  the  meat-inspection  regulations  for  the  guidance  of  non- 
veterinary  inspectors.  Owing  to  the  comprehensive  character  of  this 
manual  it  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  add  explanatory  notes  giving  the 
reasons  on  which  the  outline  is  based. 


Outline   showing    the   forms   of   tuberculosis   in   food   animals,  and  disposal   of  the 
meat  of  tuberculous  animals 


Forms  of  Tuberculosis 


I.     Tuberculosis  of  one  organs 

a.  With  extreme  emaciation. 

b.  Not  extremely  emaciated. 

I.      Tuberculosis  which  is  not  confined  to 
one  organs 

1.  In  which  infection  was  not  spread 

by  the  large  circulatory  system. 

A.  With  extreme  emaciation. 

B.  Not  extremely  emaciated. 

a.  With    extensive   softened   le- 

sions. 

b.  Without    extensive    softened 

lesions : 

1.  When   the  disease   is   only 

slightly  extended. 

2.  When  the  disease  is  great- 

ly extended. 

2.  In  which  infection   was  spread  by 

the  large  circulatory  system. 
A.  Manifestations  of  a  fresh  blood 
infection. 

a.  With  extreme  emaciation. 

b.  Without  extreme  emaciation: 

1.  Fresh  infection  in  the  vis- 

cera   or     in     the    udder 
only. 

2.  Fresh    infection    not    con- 

fined only  to  the  viscera 
or  in  the  udder. 


Disposal   of   the   Meat 


Whole  carcass  unfit  for  food. 
Parts    not   changed    are    unconditionally 
fit  for  food. 


Whole  carcass  unfit  for  food. 

Parts   not  changed   conditionally   fit   for 
food. 


The  parts  not  changed  are  uncondition- 
ally fit  for  food. 

The  parts  not  changed  are  fit  for  food, 
but  materially  reduced  in  value. 


The  whole  carcass  is  unfit  for  food. 

Unchanged  parts  are  conditionally  fit  for 
food. 

Fat  is  conditionally  fit  for  food,  meat  is 
unfit  for  food. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc. 


269 


Outline  showing  the  forms  of  tuberculosis  in   food  animals,  and  disposal  of  the 
meat  of  tuberculous  animals — Continued 


Forms  of  Tuberculosis 


B.  Without    the    manifestation    of 
fresh  blood  infection. 

a.  With  extreme  emaciation. 

b.  Without  extreme  emaciation: 

1.  With     extensive     softened 

lesions : 

2.  Without  extensive  softened 

lesions. 

a'  Tuberculous  changes  ex- 
ist   in    the    viscera    or 
in  the  udder  only: 
a"  When  the    disease    is 
only     slightly      ex- 
tended, 
b"  When   the   disease    is 

greatly  extended, 
b'  Tuberculous  changes  not 
confined  to  viscera  and 
udder  only. 

a"  When  the  disease  is 
only  slightly  ex- 
tended. 

b"When  the  disease  is 
greatly  extended. 


Disposal   of   the   Meat 


Whole  carcass  unfit  for  food. 

Unchanged  parts  are  conditionally  fit  for 
food. 


Unchanged  parts  are  unconditionally  fit 
for  food. 

Unchanged  parts  are  fit  for  .  food,  but 
materially  reduced  in  value. 

Of  the  unchanged  parts,  quarters  of  a 
carcass  which  contain  a  tuberculous 
lymph  gland  are  conditionally  fit  for 
food. 

The  other  unchanged  parts  are  uncondi- 
tionally fit  for  food. 

Fit  for  food,  but  materially  reduced  in 
value. 


Remarks. — -The  changed  parts  under  I  b,  II  I  B,  II  2  A  b  I,  and  II 
2  B  b  are  unfit  for  food. 

An  organ  must  even  then  be  regarded  as  tuberculous  when  only  the  correspond- 
ing lymph  glands  of  that  organ  show  tuberculous  changes;  a  similar  position  must 
be  taken  with  regard  to  pieces  of  meat  which  have  not  been  shown  to  be  free  from 
tuberculosis  by  careful  inspection. 

Regarding  tuberculosis  of  individual  organs  the  rule  is  that  the  whole 
organ  should  be  always  condemned  when  its  corresponding  glands  show 
tuberculous  changes. 

When  the  mesenteric  lymph  glands  are  affected  a  distinction  must 
be  made  between  those  of  the  small  and  large  intestines,  and  the  respective 
intestines  to  which  the  affected  group  of  lymph  glands  belong  must  be 
condemned.  The  mesentery  with  the  diseased  glands  may  be  permitted 
to  be  utilized  for  technical  purposes  after  it  has  been  thoroughly 
denatured. 

When  the  submaxillary  and  retropharyngeal  lymph  glands  are  dis- 
eased they  must  be  removed,  together  with  the  surrounding  parts,  includ- 
ing the  tonsils ;  however,  no  other  parts  of  the  head  need  be  condemned, 
as  these  lymph  glands  become  infected  almost  exclusively  from  the 
mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth,  nose,  and  pharyngeal  orifice,  none  of 
which  are  used  for  food  in  Germany. 


270  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Relative  to  the  judgment  of  a  tuberculous  "quarter,"  that  part  of  the 
body  is  considered  infected  which  corresponds  to  the  region  drained  by 
the  diseased  body  lymph  glands.  However,  in  case  of  tuberculosis  of  the 
vertebrae,  ribs,  or  sternum,  when  the  cause  of  the  affection  in  the  lymph 
glands  can  be  traced  to  the  respective  bones,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to 
condemn  the  more  posterior  draining  region  of  the  lymph  gland,  but  the 
altered  bones  and  glands  only  need  removal.  The  judgment  of  the 
remaining  part  of  the  carcass  should  naturally  depend  on  the  presence  of 
other  lesions. 

When  there  is  suspicion  of  tuberculosis  of  the  bones,  especially  in 
hogs,  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  the  meat  from  the  bones,  and  to 
split  the  latter. 

In  removing  tuberculous  parts,  especially  serous  membranes,  atten- 
tion is  called  to  the  necessity  of  removing  the  associated  lymph  glands 
and  the  other  parts  adjoining  them.  In  order  to  satisfactorily  remove 
small  lymph  glands  to  which  access  is  difficult,  it  is  advisable  to  remove 
the  surrounding  parts  of  meat  and  bone  with  them.  The  veterinary 
inspector  must  do  this  himself  or  see  that  it  is  being  done  under  his 
immediate  supervision.  In  this  operation  one  should  not  go  to  an  extreme 
by  removing  more  meat  than  is  absolutely  under  suspicion  of  being  tuber- 
culous. In  all  this  work  care  must  be  taken  not  to  contaminate  sound 
meat  with  tuberculous  material ;  also  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
changing  knives,  saws,  etc.,  which  are  soiled  with  tuberculous  material. 

Veal  from  calves  which  were  vaccinated  with  protective  tuberculosis  vaccine 
(for  example  Bovo-vaccin  and  Tauruman)  contains  virulent  tubercle  bacilli  for  sev- 
eral months  after  the  inoculation;  owing  to  this  fact  several  states  have  issued 
regulations  permitting  the  use  of  such  meat  only  after  cooking. 

[The  judgment  of  tuberculous  carcasses  of  food  animals  in  the 
United  States  varies  somewhat  from  that  adopted  in  Germany.  While 
it  would  appear  that  the  condemnations  from  the  extent  of  the  lesions 
are  stricter  in  this  country,  the  affected  carcasses  which  would  pass  con- 
ditionally in  Germany  being  condemned  in  this  country,  yet  the  difference 
in  the  judgment  of  tuberculosis  is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that  there 
are  no  provisions  made  in  the  United  States  by  which  certain  affected 
carcasses  could  be  passed  conditionally  for  food  (after  sterilization),  as 
the  "Freibank  system"  has  never  been  established  in  this  country.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  governing  meat  inspec- 
tion in  the  United  States,  the  tuberculous  carcasses  which  are  condi- 
tionally passed  for  food  in  Germany  are  passed  for  lard  and  tallow  in 
this  country;  such  carcasses,  however,  have  to  be  subjected  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  220°  F.  for  not  less  than  four  hours. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc. 


271 


In  the   following  section,  the   requirements   for  the   disposition   of 
tuberculous  carcasses  are  given,  in  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150: 

Section  13.  Paragraph  I.  The  following  principles  are  declared  for  guidance 
in  passing  on  carcasses  affected  with  tuberculosis: 

Principle  A. — The  fundamental  thought  is  that  meat  should  not  be  used  for 
food  if  it  contains  tubercle  bacilli,  if  there  is  a  reasonable  possibility  that  it  may 
contain  tubercle  bacilli,  or  if  it  is  impregnated  with  toxic  substances  of  tuberculosis 
or  associated  septic  infections. 

Principle  B. — On  the  other  hand,  if  the  lesions  are  localized  and  not  numerous, 
if  there  is  no  evidence  of  distribution  of  tubercle  bacilli  through  the  blood,  or  by 
other  means,  to  the  muscles  or  to  parts  that  may  be  eaten  with  the  muscles,  and 
if  the  animal  is  well  nourished  and  in  good  condition,  there  is  no  proof,  or  even 
reason  to  suspect,  that  the  flesh  is  unwholesome. 

Principle  C. — Evidences  of  generalized  tuberculosis  are  to  be  sought  in  such 
distribution  and  number  of  tuberculous  lesions  as  can  be  explained  only  upon  the 
supposition  of  the  entrance  of  tubercle  bacilli  in  considerable  number  into  the  sys- 
temic circulation.  Significant  of  such  generalization  are  the  presence  of  numerous 
uniformly  distributed  tubercles  throughout  both  lungs,  also  tubercles  in  the  spleen, 
kidneys,  bones,  joints,  and  sexual  glands,  and  in  the  lymphatic  glands  connected 
with  these  organs  and  parts,  or  in  the  splenic,  renal,  prescapular,  popliteal,  and 
inguinal  glands,  when  several  of  these  organs  and  parts  are  coincidentally  affected. 

Principle  D. — By  localized  tuberculosis  is  understood  tuberculosis  limited  to  a 
single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  without  evidence  of  recent  invasion  of 
numerous  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circulation. 

Paragraph  2.  The  following  rules  shall  govern  the  disposal  of  tubercu- 
lous meat : 

Rule  A. — The  entire  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 

(a)  When  it  was  observed  before  the  animal  was  killed  that  it  was  suffering 
with  fever. 

(fr)  When  there  is  a  tuberculous  or  other  cachexia,  as  shown  by  anemia  and 
emaciation. 

(c)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  generalized,  as  shown  by  their  pres- 
ence not  only  at  the  usual  seats  of  primary  infection,  but  also  in  parts  of  the  carcass 
or  the  organs  that  may  be  reached  by  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  only  when  they 
are  carried  in   the  systemic  circulation.     Tuberculous    lesions    in    any   two    of    the 
following-mentioned  organs  are  to  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  generalization  when 
they  occur  in  addition  to  local  tuberculous  lesions  in  the  digestive  or  respiratory 
tracts,  including  the  lymphatic  glands  connected  therewith :     Spleen,  kidney,  uterus, 
udder,    ovary,    testicle,    adrenal    gland,   brain   or    spinal   cord   or   their   membranes. 
Numerous  uniformly  distributed  tubercles  throughout  both   lungs  also  afford  evi- 
dence of  generalization. 

(d)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  found  in  the  muscles  or  intermusculai 
tissue  or  bones  or  joints  or  in  the  body  lymphatic  glands  as  a  result  of  draining  the 
muscles,  bones,  or  joints. 

O)   When  the  lesions  are  extensive  in  one  or  both  body  cavities. 

(/)  When  the  lesions  are  multiple,  acute,  and  actively  progressive.  (Evidence 
of  active  progress  cojisists  in  signs  of  acute  inflammation  about  the  lesions,  or 
liquefaction  necrosis,  or  the  presence  of  young  tubercles.) 

Rule  B. — An  organ  or  a  part  of  a  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 

(o)  WThen   it  contains   lesions  of  tuberculosis. 


272  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

(b)  When  the  lesion   is  immediately  adjacent  to  the   flesh,  as  in  the  case  of 
tuberculosis  of  the  parietal  pleura  or  peritoneum,  not  only  the  membrane  or  part 
affected  but  also  the  adjacent  thoracic  or  abdominal  wall  is  to  be  condemned. 

(c)  When  it  has  been  contaminated  by  tuberculous  material,  through  contact 
with  the  floor,  a  soiled  knife,  or  otherwise. 

(d)  All  heads  showing  lesions  of  tuberculosis  shall  be  condemned. 

(<?)  An  organ  shall  be  condemned  when  the  corresponding  lymphatic  g!and 
is  tuberculous. 

Rule  C. — The  carcass,  if  the  tuberculous  lesions  are  limited  to  a  single  or  several 
parts  or  organs  of  the  body  (except  as  noted  in  Rule  A),  without  evidence  of 
recent  invasion  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  systemic  •  circulation,  shall  be  passed 
after  the  parts  containing  the  localized  lesions  are  removed  and  condemned  in 
accordance  with  Rule  B. 

Rule  D. — Carcasses  which  reveal  lesions  more  numerous  than  those  described 
for  carcasses  to  be  passed  (Rule  C),  but  not  so  severe  as  the  lesions  described  for 
carcasses  to  be  condemned  (Rule  A),  may  be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  if  the 
distribution  of  the  lesions  is  such  that  all  parts  containing  tuberculous  lesions  can 
be  removed.  Such  carcasses  shall  be  cooked  by  steam  at  a  temperature  not  lower 
than  220  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  not  less  than  four  hours.] 

2.    Pseudcvtuberculosis 

As  pseudo-tuberculosis  are  designated  the  affections  which  run  their 
course  by  producing  nodules  similar  to  those  in  tuberculosis  and  which  as 
a  rule  also  caseate  but  which  are  not  caused  by  Koch's  tubercle  bacillus. 
Foreign  bodies,  cocci,  bacteria,  bacilli  and  hyphomycetes  may  be  etiolog- 
ically  involved.  However,  only  those  names  which  are  etiologically  cor- 
rect are  at  present  used  in  connection  with  the  tuberculous-like  processes 
caused  by  animal  parasites,  which  were  formerly  also  designated  as 
tuberculosis. 

Frequency. — Among  food  animals  pseudo-tuberculous  processes  with 
conspicuous  caseation  or  premature  calcification  occur  most  frequently  in 
sheep.  They  have,  however,  been  found  in  cattle,  calves,  guinea  pigs, 
rabbits,  and  chickens. 

In  sheep  the  disease  is  caused  by  the  bacillus  psuedo-tuberculosis  ovis  Preisz, 
which  appears  as  a  very  thin  immotile  rod,  and  which  stains  readily  with  aqueous 
anilin  dyes  and  by  Gram's  method;  the  bacilli  in  cultures  are  both  thicker  and 
longer,  developing  also  club  and  pear-shaped  forms.  (Hutyra  and  Marek.) 
(Fig.  117.) 

[In  this  country  the  disease  is  called  caseous  lymphadenitis  and  is 
fully  described  in  the  I7th  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry.] 

The  absence  of  giant  cells  and  epithelioid  cells,  according  to  Ostertag, 
is  of  importance  in  identifying  pseudo-tuberculous  alterations.  The  dry, 
caseated  pseudo-tuberculous  lesions  in  the  lymph  glands  are  characterized 
by  onion-like  layers  (Noack).  An  attempt  should  also  be  made  to  estab- 
lish the  cause  of  the  processes.  It  may  be  confused  with  tuberculosis  only; 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  273 

but  this  may  be  avoided  by  carefully  observing  the  aforementioned  charac- 
teristics, together  with  those  changes  which  are  characteristic  of  genuine 
tuberculosis. 

Judgment. — All  parts  of  carcasses  per- 
meated with  pseudo-tuberculous  processes 
should  be  treated  as  unfit  for  food,  regard- 
less of  the  form  of  infection,  whether  it  is 
of  primary,  secondary,  or  embolic  nature. 
Whether  or  not  the  whole  carcass  shall  be 
condemned,  or  declared  of  inferior  value 
for  food,  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the 
animal  and  the  character  of  the  meat. 
Noack  recommends  that  similar  action  be 
taken  as  in  genuine  tuberculosis  until  it  has  p-jg  II7  Bacillus  pseudo- 
been  proven  that  man  is  not  susceptible  to  tuberculosis  ovis.  Agar  cul- 
,!  ,  M1  ,  ,  i  ,  •  ture.  Gram's  staining.  After 

the  bacillus  pseudo-tuberculosis.  Hutyra  and  Marek. 

[The  judgment  of  carcasses  affected  with 

pseudo-tuberculosis  is  carried  out  in  this  country  on  the  same  lines  as  is 
prescribed  for  Germany.] 

3,     Actinomycosis 

The  ray  fungus  disease  (which  is  caused  by  a  fission  fungus,  the 
Actinomyces  bovis,  or  Streptothrix  actinomyces)  (Fig.  118)  is  a  disease 
of  slow  course,  which  occurs  in  cattle,  swine,  sheep,  and  horses,  as  well  as 
in  man.  It  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  tumors,  connective  tissue 
infiltrations  and  abscesses. 

Patho genesis. — The  ray  fungus  can  enter  the  body  through  the  diges- 
tive or  respiratory  tracts  or  through  the  outer  skin.  After  entering  the 
tissues  the  fungus  develops  a  nodule,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  an 
inflammatory  area  and  a  granulation  zone  soon  arise.  Around  this 
center  changes  will  then  occur,  either  the  formation  of  connective  tissue 
neoformations  which  lead  to  induration  and  hardening,  or  destruction  of 
tissue  and  abscess  formation.  The  latter  condition  occurs  especially 
among  swine.  The  actinomycotic  growth  in  domestic  animals  shows 
chiefly  fibrous  characters,  but  occasionally  a  myxofibromatous  consistence 
may  also  appear.  Both  enclose  the  above-mentioned  granulation  center, 
in  which  the  actinomyces  fungi  may  be  recognized  macroscopically  as  fine- 
grained, sulphur-yellow  bodies. 

Microscopically  the  latter  appear  to  be  greenish  and  of  a  character- 
istically radiated  structure,  and  when  calcified  are  somewhat  darker  in 
color. 

19 


274          Chap.    VII.     Abnormal    Conditions    and    Diseases,    etc. 


Metastatic  extensions  of  the  fungus  from  the  primary  lesion  may 
occur,  causing  generalization  in  other  parts  of  the  body,  but  this  occurs 
with  remarkable  infrequency,  as  does  also  any  affection  of  the  lymphatic 
glands,  where  neither  purulence  nor  calcification  are  often  found  to  occur. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  cattle  the  chief  symptoms  are  hard 
tumor-like  distentions  of  the  jaw-bones,  at  which  points  red,  sarcomatous 
proliferations  may  break  out  through  the  skin.  Such  tumors  may  also 


Fig.  118.  Actinomyces  bovis.  a,  x 
200  diam. ;  b,  x  500  diam.  After 
Johne. 


occur  in  the  region  of  the  parotid  glands,  on  the  cheeks,  the  lips,  and  more 
rarely  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  tongue  changes  to  be  described 
below,  while  occurring  much  more  frequently  than  the  affection  of  the 
jaw,  are  noticed  only  in  the  most  severe  cases  during  the  life  of  the  ani- 
mal, or  when  the  animal  is  noticeably  troubled  in  taking  up  its  food.  The 
latter  condition  will  gradually  lead  to  the  emaciation  of  the  animal, 
although  its  general  health  is  undisturbed.  In  swine  the  most  common 
indication  of  actinomycosis  consists  in  nodular  growths  and  cold  abscesses 
within  the  udder.  The  first  may  also  be  accompanied  by  ulcerations  or  fistu- 
lous  formations.  Larger  tumors  are  comparatively  rare.  Small  actinomy- 
cotic  nodules  may  be  observed  at  the  seat  of  castration,  both  in  male  and 
female  hogs.  In  other  food  animals  actinomycotic  affections  are  very 
rarely  recognized  during  life. 

In  slaughtered  cattle  the  most  frequent  seat  of  the  disease  is  the 
tongue,  the  actinomycotic  affection  starting  as  a  rule,  in  the  transverse 
groove  (Fig.  119).  In  and  around  this  location  little  nodules  may  arise, 
scattered  about  in  the  mucous  membrane.  Whenever  these  growths  per- 
meate the  lingual  muscles,  inflammation  results  which  affects  chronically 
the  intermuscular  connective  tissues  leading  to  enlargement  and  harden- 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc. 


275 


ing  of  the  organ  (wooden  tongue).  On  the  surface  of  the  tongue  actin- 
omycotic  erosions  and  fungiform  prominences  may  develop.  Similar 
alterations  may  also  occur  upon  the  cheeks  and  gums. 

The  changes  in  the  jaw-bones  visually  result  from  the  entrance  of  the 


Fig.  119.     Actinomycotic  ulcer  on  the  dorsum  of  the  tongue  of  cattle.     Accord- 
ing to  Hutyra  and  Marek. 

fungus  alongside  of  the  teeth,  and  often  lead  to  considerable  swelling  and 
deformities  (Fig.  120).  The  infrequently  occurring  actinomycotic 
changes  in  other  mucous  membranes  and  viscera  appear  as  pedunculated 
tumors  (in  the  buccal  cavity, 
esophagus,  and  stomachs),  or  as 
nodular  tumors,  which  through 
myxomatous  infiltrations  may 
reach  great  dimensions  (espe- 
cially in  the  lungs). 

In  the  udder  the  changes  oc- 
cur as  nodular  growths  or  as 
diffuse  indurative  inflammations 
in  conjunction  with  the  former. 
Actinomycosis  of  the  skin  is 
seen  principally  on  the  head  and 
neck  in  the  form  of  tumors,  or 
as  diffused  bacon-like  infiltra- 
tions. Pieroni  found  actinomy- 
cotic changes  in  the  dura  mater 
and  the  occipital  bone. 

As  previously  mentioned,  ac- 
tinomycosis  of  swine  appears  most  frequently  as  a  disease  of  the  mammae, 
manifested  either  by  nodules  with  skin  erosions,  or  by  cold  abscesses 
with  or  without  fistulous  formations.  Extensive  infiltrations  are  compara- 
tively rare  in  these  parts.  The  lesions  at  the  places  of  castration  are 


Fig.  120.  Frontal  section  through  the 
nose  and  superior  maxilla  of  cattle  with 
an  actinomycotic  growth,  a,  nodules 
consisting  of  connective  tissue,  bone, 
and  small  suppurative  foci.  y±  of  the 
natural  size.  After  Ziegler. 


276  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

mostly  nodular.  Actinomycotic  changes  in  the  fauces  are  relatively  quite 
rare  (Johne)  ;  likewise  abscesses  in  the  region  of  the  throat  and  on  the 
other  parts  of  the  skin. 

Actinomycosis  has  been  found  in  the  lungs,  muscles,  and  on  the  lips 
and  tongue  of  slaughtered  sheep. 

The  cases  of  actinomycosis  of  the  horse  are  limited  to  a  few  observa- 
tions of  the  disease  in  the  spermatic  cord  lymph  glands,. bones,  tongue,  and 
generalized  affections. 

Diagnosis  is  not  difficult  if  attention  is  given  to  the  pathological 
characteristics  mentioned  above.  The  scattered  yellowish  granules  are  to 
be  especially  noted  in  the  growths,  the  microscopical  examination  of 
which  assures  a  diagnosis.  This  may  be  a  hard  undertaking  where  degen- 
eration of  the  actinomyces  fungi  has  become  established,  but  in  food  ani- 
mals this  condition  does  not  occur  often.  The  fungi  stain  readily  with 
Gram's  stain  and  with  picro-carmine. 

Actinomycotic  tumors  may  be  mistaken  for  various  other  growths, 
especially  for  tuberculous  nodules,  when  the  characteristic  structure  of  the 
actinomycotic  tumors  is  not  considered,  and  besides  when  insufficient 
attention  is  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  lymph  glands. 

Judgment. — Although  actinomycosis  may  at  times  affect  man  danger- 
ously, no  instance  has  been  observed  of  a  direct  transmission  of  the  fungus 
to  people,  either  from  living  or  slaughtered  animals.  The  actinomycotic  tis- 
sues should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food  on  account  of  their 
decidedly  abnormal  consistence.  This  disposition  should  be  made  of  the 
entire  organ  wherever  multiple  local  infection  has  occurred.  In  cases  of 
generalized  actinomycosis  the  entire  carcass  should  be  carefully  examined 
on  account  of  the  atypical  course  of  such  generalization  and  the  parts 
showing  actinomycotic  changes  should  be  condemned. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  n, 
paragraphs  1-3,  carcasses  affected  with  generalized  actinomycosis  should 
be  condemned;  in  case  the  affection  has  not  extended  from  the  primary 
area  of  infection  and  is  confined  to  the  head,  the  carcass  is  passed  for  food 
while  the  head  and  tongue  is  condemned.  Where  the  lesions  are  uncom- 
plicated and  localized  the  infected  organ  or  parts  are  condemned,  while 
the  carcass  is  passed  for  food.] 

Actinobacillosis,  which  has  been  found  by  Lignieres  and  Spitz,  in  the  cattle  and 
occasionally  in  the  sheep  of  Argentine,  is  not  of  importance  to  the  German  inspector 
of  meats.1 


t1  In  Canada  this  disease  has  been  reported  in  cattle  and  recently  a  case  of  acti- 
nobacillosis  was  observed  in  a  hog  in  this  country.] 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  277 

4.     Botryomycosis 

Botryomycosis  is  a  chronic,  tumor-like  connective  tissue  proliferation, 
caused  by  the  Botryococcus  ascoformans,  Kitt.     It  grows  as  spherical  or 
grape-like  colonies  (Fig.  121),  which  soon  are  surrounded  by  hyaline  cap- 
sules.    These  clumps  of  round  micro-organisms 
were   called   Botryomyces   by   Bellinger ;   Bisco- 
myces    equi  by    Rivolta ;    Micrococcus    ascofor- 
mans, by  Johne,   and  Micrococcus   bo  try  o genus 
by  Rabe.    This  disease  occurs  almost  exclusively 
in  horses,  but  it  has  also  been  observed  in  cattle 
and  hogs  in  isolated  cases. 

Symptoms    and    Lesions. — The    characteristic 

lesions    are    fibrous    nodules    and    tumors    with 

<-,         j        11       •  i    i  .1  •  Fig-    121.      Colony    of 

softened  yellowish-brown  areas  in  the  center,  in      botryomyces.  After  Rabe. 

which  small   sand-like  granules  of  a  yellowish- 
white  color  are  found.  The  latter  are  composed  of  grape-shaped,  con- 
glomerate, closely  adherent  clumps  of  botryococci. 

The  most  common  site  of  these  nodules  in  the  horse  is  the  subcutis 
and  spermatic  cord,  but  they  may  also  occur  in  the  udder,  ribs,  muscles, 
and  on  the  pleura.  Guenther,  Czokor,  Immelmann,  and  Reali  have  also 
reported  it  in  cattle,  while  Wilbrandt  and  Schneidemiihl  have  found 
botryomycosis  in  the  hog.  A  generalization  of  the  disease  has  been  vari- 
ously observed. 

The  disease  is  recognized  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  above- 
mentioned  granules,  which  stain  with  all  the  basic  anilin  stains,  thereby 
avoiding  confusion  with  other  infectious  granulomata,  such  as  actinomy- 
cosis  and  glanders. 

Judgment. — All  parts  affected  with  botryomycotic  processes  are  to 
be  condemned  as  unfit  for  food  and  destroyed.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150, 
Regulation  13,  section  23.] 

5.     Anthrax 

Anthrax,  which  occurs  in  all  food-producing  animals,  in  game,  and 
in  fowls,  is  produced  by  the  Bacillus  anthracis.  The  hog  and  dog  are  some- 
what resistant  to  infection,  but  anthrax  infection  has  been  satisfactorily 
demonstrated  in  them. 


Bacteriology. — The  anthrax  bacilli  (Figs.  122  and  123)  measure  1.5  to  3 
microns  in  length,  i  to  1.5  microns  in  width,  with  slightly  convex  or  perfectly  square 
ends.  They  form  obtusely  angular  chains  reaching  a  maximum  of  10  microns  in 
length.  The  anthrax  bacilli  are  immotile,  and  those  taken  from  the  blood  are 


278 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


surrounded  by  a  characteristic,  capsular  or  gelatinous  membrane,  by  which  they 
are  distinguished  from  other  similarly  formed  bacteria.  The  anthrax  bacillus 
grows  only  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  and  forms  spores  (Fig.  123)  ;  the  latter,  how- 
ever, never  form  in  the  live  animal  body  or  in  the  intact  cadaver.  The  best  way  to 
prepare  suspected  material  (spleen  pulp)  for  shipment  and  bacteriological  exami- 


Fig.  122 

Fig.  122.  Anthrax  bacilli  with  stained 
capsule,  x  500  diameters. 

Fig.  123.  Anthrax  bacilli  containing 
spores.  Agar  culture  8  hours  old. 
Stained  by  fuchsin.  After  Hutyra  and 
Marek. 


Fig.    123 


nation  is  by  careful  slow  drying  of  thick  smears  on  glass  slides  or  on  the  inner 
surface  of  test  tubes  (Bongert  and  Hosang  ;  or  perhaps  better  still,  by  the  Forster 
plaster-paris  rod  method  (Marxer,  Jacobsthal  and  Pfersdorff,  Eberle,  Dausel). 

Staining  of  the  anthrax  bacilli  with  their  capsules. — After  Luepke :  Slightly 
boil  the  cover-glass  preparation  with  a  0.2  per  cent,  gentian  violet  solution ;  rinse 
thoroughly  with  water.  After  Johne :  Stain  in  hot  2  per  cent,  gentian  violet  solu- 
tion ;  wash  in  water ;  decolorize  for  10-20  seconds  in  2  per  cent,  acetic  acid ;  wash  in 
water.  After  Klett :  Boil  in  alcoholic  methylene  blue  solution  (i  :  10  Alk.  :  100  Aq.)  ; 
wash  in  water;  stain  in  alcoholic  solution  of  fuchsin  (i  :  10  Alk.  :  100  Aq.)  ;  wash. 
After  Olt :  Heat  the  cover-glass  over  a  flame  after  applying  a  3  per  cent,  aqueous 
safranin  solution;  wash  in  water.  After  Raebiger :  Air-dried  cover-glass  prepara- 
tions stained  cold  with  formalin-gentian  violet  (150  g.  40  per  cent,  formalin  with 
15-20  g.  gentian  violet)  for  20  seconds;  wash  in  water. 

Pathogenesis. — The  anthrax  bacilli,  or  their  spores,  enter  either 
through  injuries  of  the  skin  or  through  the  digestive  apparatus  into  the 
organism.  Only  the  spores  are  effective  by  the  latter  method.  The  infec- 
tion by  way  of  the  air  passages,  which  occurs  in  man,  is  exceedingly  rare 
in  animals.  From  the  point  of  inoculation  the  bacilli  enter  the  blood, 
where  they  multiply  rapidly,  and  through  their  toxins  produce  a  severe 
febrile  affection. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  vary  considerably, 
according  to  the  infection,  species  of  animals,  and  individuals,  and  they 
may  be  entirely  overlooked  in  abortive  cases  (apoplectiform  anthrax). 
Otherwise,  characteristic  symptoms  are  the  sudden  appearance  of  the  dis- 
ease, the  rapid  course,  high  fever,  and  general  severe  constitutional  symp- 
toms, hemorrhages  into  the  mucous  membranes,  and  bloody  discharges, 
cerebral  or  pulmonary  congestions,  colic  and  drying  up  of  milk-secretion 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc. 


279 


in  lactating  animals.  In  some  cases  there  may  be  present  visible  localiza- 
tions, such  as  carbuncle,  and  edema  of  the  skin  (especially  in  cattle  and 
horses)  and  mucous  membranes  (especially  of  the  tongue,  termed  gloss- 
anthrax)  ;  also  edema  of  the  neck  in  hogs. 

Of  the  pathological  findings,  the  most  important  is  the  swollen 
spleen,  whose  pulp  is  blackish-red  and  of  a  fluid  consistency.  In  the  hog 
and  horse,  exceptionally  also  in  emergency  slaughtered  cattle,  enlarge- 
ment of  the  spleen  may  be  slight  or  absent.  Further  there  occurs  cloudy 
swelling  of  the  heart,  liver,  and  kidneys  with  venous  stasis  or  formation 
of  hemorrhagic  infarcts  and  petechial  hemorrhages.  The  latter  may  occur 
on  any  part  of  the  body,  especially  beneath  the  pericardium  and  pleura. 
Marked  stasis  in  the  mesenteric,  intestinal  and  hepatic  veins  is  present 
with  brownish-red  discoloration  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  aboma- 


Fig.  124 


Fig    125 


Fig.  124.  Superficial  colony  of 
the  bacillus  anthracis  in  a  24-hour- 
old  agar  plate  culture.  x  50 
diameters. 


Fig.    125.      Cadaver    bacilli,      x 
500    diameters. 


sum  and  intestinal  walls,  in  which  hemorrhages  may  occur,  bloody  infil- 
tration of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  small  intestines,  and  to  less 
degree  of  the  colon  mucosa.  Pulmonary  edema  and  marked  cervical 
edema,  especially  in  hogs,  may  be  noted,  and  also  yellowish  gelatinous  and 
bloody  infiltrations  of  the  subcutis,  with  engorged  veins  of  •  the  skin  and 
muscles.  The  majority  of  the  lymphatic  glands  are  strikingly  edematous, 
hyperemic,  and  show  bloody  extravasations.  Rigor  mortis  is  absent.  The 
blood  is  not  coagulated,  and  is,  as  a  rule,  dark  to  black-red  (tar-like)  ; 
there  occur  cases,  however,  which  run  a  rapid  course,  in  which  the  color 
of  the  blood  is  not  materially  changed. 

The  unopened  cadaver  rapidly  becomes  distended,  and  from  the 
natural  body  openings  there  will  flow  discharges  mixed  with  blood ;  in  the 
body  cavities  will  be  found  a  blood-stained  serous  fluid. 


280  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

The  recognition  of  anthrax  is  based  on  careful  consideration  of  the 
anatomic  findings  and  the  microscopic  examination  of  a  stained  cover- 
glass  preparation  made  from  the  splenic  pulp,  the  lymph  of  the  mesen- 
teric  glands,  the  blood  of  the  veins  of  the  skin,  or  from  the  edematously 
infiltrated  portions  of  the  subcutis.  In  doubtful  cases  test  inoculations  and 
culture  growths  for  the  demonstration  of  the  bacilli  will  be  effective ;  but 
these  cannot  be  considered  at  this  point.  It  might  be  emphasized,  how- 
ever, that  the  plate  method  (Fig.  124)  is  the  best  and  safest  for  the  bac- 
teriological diagnosis  of  anthrax  (Kitt,  Bongert,  Hosang,  Kaesewurm). 

For  differential  diagnosis  must  be  considered:  Blackleg,  malignant 
edema,  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  septic  diseases,  petechial  fever,  certain 
intoxications,  overfeeding  of  cattle  after  long  transportation,  and  erysipe- 
las in  hogs.  For  particular  characteristics  of  these  diseases,  as  com- 
pared with  the  symptoms  of  anthrax  as  well  as  the  differentiating  char- 
acteristics of  some  of  the  microorganisms  of  these  diseases,  the  reader  is 
referred  elsewhere  for  their  description. 

Partial  splenic  enlargement  (infarcts)  resulting  from  torsion  or 
emboli  is  characterized  by  firm  consistency  of  the  swollen  parts.  A  very 
large  splenic  tumor,  involving  the  entire  organ,  has  been  observed  in  the 
hog  as  a  result  of  torsion.  A  confusion  of  cadaver  bacilli  with  anthrax 
bacilli  is  excluded  in  the  light  of  our  recent  staining  technique  and  upon 
careful  study  of  the  two  species  (Figs.  122  and  I25).1  Kaesewurm  has 
called  attention  to  a  pseudo-anthrax  bacillus  which  also  forms  colonies 
composed  of  bundles  of  wavy,  tangled  filaments. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  anthrax  animals  should  be  considered 
injurious  as  food,  and  is  to  be  condemned  and  destroyed.  The  latter  is 
effected  by  the  veterinary  police ;  every  case  of  anthrax  or  suspected 
anthrax  is,  according  to  the  regulations,  to  be  immediately  reported  to 
the  local  police  authorities. 

Meat  suspected  of  having  been  only  superficially  soiled  with  anthrax  bacilli, 
which  may  occur  in  the  case  of  an  animal  infected  with  anthrax  being  slaughtered 
in  an  abattoir  with  other  animals,  may  be  utilized  for  food  after  having  been  ster- 
ilized with  steam. 

If  on  ante-mortem  inspection  an  animal  be  suspected  of  having 
anthrax,  slaughtering  is  to  be  forbidden,  and  the  necessary  measures 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  spread  to  man  or  to  animals  and  arrest 
further  dissemination  of  the  infectious  material. 

I1  McFadyean  has  recently  described  a  peculiar  staining  reaction  of  anthrax 
bacilli  which  is  specific.  'Smear  preparations  are  stained  for  a  few  seconds  with  a 
i  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  methylene  blue;  the  amorphous  material  around 
and  between  the  bacilli  appears  violet  or  reddish-purple,  while  the  bacilli  and  cell 
nuclei  are  blue.] 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  281 

If  a  slaughtered  animal  be  found  diseased,  all  parts  thereof  are  to  be 
confiscated  and  left  to  the  disposition  of  the  veterinary  authorities.  Per- 
sons engaged  in  the  slaughter  of  the  animal  or  in  handling  it  in  any  way 
are  to  be  carefully  examined  for  probable  infection  (wounds  on  hands  or 
arms). 

The  fact  that  much  anthrax  meat  has  been  eaten  without  any  harm  to  man  is 
explained  by  the  loss  of  vitality  of  the  bacilli  (not  of  the  spores,  however)  in  the 
intestinal  tract,  where,  as  a  rule,  they  are  destroyed  by  the  gastric  juice.  This  meat 
nevertheless  remains  dangerous  to  man  on  account  of  the  liability  to  inoculation  by 
handling  or  by  ingestion  through  the  injured  mucous  membrane  of  the  diges- 
tive tract. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  2,  car- 
casses affected  with  anthrax  should  be  immediately  incinerated ;  the  same 
disposition  should  be  made  of  the  hides,  hoofs,  horns,  viscera,  and  all 
other  parts  of  the  diseased  animal.  The  killing  bed  and  all  the  instruments 
used  in  the  slaughter  of  the  animal  should  be  disinfected  with  a  10  per 
cent,  formalin  solution.] 

6,     Rabies 

On  account  of  its  rarity  and  the  exceedingly  difficult  recognition  of 
rabies  (lyssa,  rabies)  in  slaughtered  animals,  it  will  be  but  slightly 
touched  upon.  This  disease  may  occur  in  all  food  animals  and  is  usually 
occasioned  through  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog. 

Etiologically  rabies  requires  further  research  [although  it  is  quite 
generally  accepted  that  the  nerve  cell  inclusions  discovered  by  Xegri  in 
1903,  and  termed  Negri  bodies,  are  the  causative  agents]. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  view  of  the  multiplicity  of  variation  of 
the  clinical  symptoms  of  rabies  in  the  different  animal  species  and  the  use- 
lessness  of  an  extensive  description,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  special 
text-books  of  veterinary  medicine.  The  anatomical  changes  are  not 
characteristic. 

The  recognition  of  a  well-developed  case  of  rabies  in  the  living  animal 
is  not  so  very  difficult,  especially  if  it  can  be  observed  for  several  days. 
In  the  slaughtered  animal,  however,  a  probable  diagnosis  of  rabies  can 
only  be  established,  which  may  be  verified  by  the  determination  of  a  bite 
from  a  dog  at  some  previous  time,  and  a  comparison  of  the  clinical  symp- 
toms reported.  In  the  dog,  suspicion  is  further  incited  by  the  presence 
of  indigestible  material  (wood,  straw,  hair,  cloth,  etc.)  in  the  otherwise 
usually  empty  stomach ;  the  intestinal  tract  is  also  generally  free  from  nor- 
mal food  stuffs.  The  absence  of  any  other  distinct  organic  disease 
which  might  be  the  cause  of  the  symptoms  also  supports  the  diagnosis 
of  rabies. 


282  Chap,  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Absolutely  certain  establishment  of  diagnosis  is  obtained  by  subdural,  intraocu- 
lar, or  intramuscular  inoculation  of  the  substance  of  the  central  nervous  system 
into  experiment  animals.  Histologically  the  diagnosis  may  be  made  by  the  demon- 
stration of  Negri  bodies.  Negri  bodies  are  round,  oval,  or  pear-shaped  struc- 
tures, situated  in  the  interior  of  the  large  ganglia  cells  of  the  central  nervous  sys- 
tem; they  assume  a  dark  red  color  on  staining  with  eosin-methylene  blue  solution, 
while  the  cells  and  cell-nuclei  appear  blue.  In  the  section  for  the  treatment  of 
rabies  at  the  Royal  Institute  for  Infectious  Diseases  in  Berlin,  the  diagnosis  of 
rabies  is  accepted  on  the  finding  of  the  Negri  bodies  without  recourse  to  animal 
inoculation. 

Judgment. — As  the  meat  of  rabid  animals  is  dangerous  to  health  and 
unfit  for  food,  it  should  be  condemned.  Although  transmission  of  rabies 
has  not  been  observed  to  result  from  ingestion  of  meat  from  rabid  ani- 
mals, the  disease  is  nevertheless  possible  if  inoculation  occurs  while 
handling  the  meat.  According  to  v.  Ratz,  the  virus  of  rabies  remains 
active  for  13-24  days  after  death  of  the  animal. 

Veterinary  police  measures  with  rabies  are  the  same  as  with  anthrax, 
e.  g.,  report  of  cases,  forbidden  slaughter,  destruction  or  removal  of  the 
cadaver  so  it  can  do  no  harm. 

In  the  incubation  stage  of  the  disease  slaughtering  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, with  the  exception  of  cats  and  dogs,  is  not  prohibited,  and  the  meat 
may  also  be  utilized  after  removal  of  the  bitten  area. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  7, 
carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  rabies  should  be  condemned.] 

7,     Glanders 

Spontaneous  glanders  (malleus)  is  an  exceedingly  infectious  disease 

of  solipeds,  but  may  be  transmitted  to  sheep,  goats,  dogs,  cats,  and  various 

other  animals,  especially  man.    Of  the   food  animals,  cattle   are   immune, 

while  hogs  are  nearly  so.     The  disease  is  produced 

,i^  i  ^      _  by  the  glanders  bacillus  discovered  by  Loffler  and 

* ^"k \'\  .';/'  Schiitz. 

v      X  '^      *\         \V 

}   ^   '  *x'xj 
l»\    \  >*N  -    f 

**  VjrV  *  *""  Bacteriology. — The  Bacillus  mallei  (Fig.  126)  is  immotile, 

2  microns  long,  0.3  micron  wide  and  frequently  arranged 

Fig.    126.     Glanders       jn   pa;rs      Sporulation   does   not  take  place.     The  staining 
bacilli     from    a    pure       •     ,  ..  , 

culture      x  730  diam-      ls  accomplished,  according  to  Loffler,  by  using  anilm 

eters.      After    Weich-       aqueous  gentian  violet   for  5  minutes,  to  which  has  been 

selbaum.  added    the    same    quantity    of    potasium    hydrate    solution 

(i:  10,000).     Next  dip  in  acetic  acid  solution   (1:100".',  to 

which  has  been  added  a  few  drops  of  tropaolin  solution,  and  then  wash  in  water. 
Potato  culture  is  characteristic;  at  a  temperature  of  37.5°   C.  for  two  days    it 
shows   a   yellow   homogeneous  growth,   which   later   turns   dark   brownish-red   and 
assumes  a  honey-like  appearance. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  283 

Pathogcnesis. — The  glanders  bacillus  gains  entrance  in  solipeds  in 
most  cases  by  way  of  the  digestive  apparatus ;  next  in  order  through  the 
abraded  skin.  The  infection  occurs  rarely  by  way  of  the  air  passages. 
Only  in  very  severe  infections  do  the  bacilli  produce  changes  or  lesions  at 
the  point  of  entrance  (intestinal  mucosa).  As  a  rule  they  are  disseminated 
by  the  lymphatic  or  blood  stream  and  produce  diseased  processes  embol- 
ically  in  the  most  remote  organs.  There  will  form  either  millet  to  pea- 
sized,  subepithelial  nodules  (nodular  glanders),  or  diffuse  cellular  infil- 
trations of  the  mucous  membranes  (infiltrated  glanders).  Disintegration 
of  the  nodules  of  the  mucous  membranes  causes  ulcers  with  a  yellowish 
infiltrated  base,  which 
rapidly  enlarge.  Heal- 
ing of  the  ulcers  with 
radiating  cicatrices  may 
also  occur  (Fig.  127). 
The  nodules,  nodes,  and 
diffuse  glanderous 
growths  in  the  interior 

of  the  organs  are  partly 

..    .  i      r       j  Fig.   127.     Nasal  septum  of  a  horse  showing  ulcers 

light-gray  and  abundant    and   a   scar   of  gianders.    After  Ostertag, 

in    cells,    partly    opaque, 

yellowish-white,   caseatecl   or  approaching    suppuration,    partly    also    of 

grayish-white  firm  consistency. 

In  infection  of  the  skin  (farcy,  cutaneous  glanders)  there  form, 
partly  in  the  papillary  portion,  partly  in  the  subcutis,  rapidly  disintegrat- 
ing nodes,  which  give  rise  to  abscesses.  From  these  abscesses  a  glander- 
ous lymphangitis  develops. 

All  glanderous  processes  are  associated  with  specific  inflammation  of 
the  lymphatic  glands,  which  is  characterized  by  inflammatory  swelling, 
formation  of  nodules,  areas  of  degeneration  and  chronic  inflammatory 
proliferation  of  connective  tissue,  which  extends  to  the  neighboring  tis- 
sues, resulting  in  coalition  of  the  glands  with  the  surrounding  tissues. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Of  the  various  symptoms  of  chronic  gland- 
ers, which  is  frequently  recognized  with  difficulty  in  the  living  animal- 
acute  glanders  not  coming  into  consideration  in  inspection — the  following 
are  of  particular  importance  on  ante-mortem  examination :  Xasal  dis- 
charge, which  is  irregular :  adhesive  mucus  which  is  gray  or  greenish- 
yellow,  may  be  mixed  with  a  clear  catarrhal  secretion ;  nodules  or  ulcers 
or  cicatrices  on  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose ;  diffuse  enlargement  of 
the  submaxillary  lymphatic  glands,  which  later  appear  painless,  nodular, 
hard,  and  attached  to  the  maxilla  :  nodes,  ulcers,  corded  lymphatics  in 
the  skin,  and  glanderous  phlegmons  of  the  latter. 


284 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


The  anatomical  changes  correspond  to  the  clinical  symptoms,  as  above 
described,  from  the  yery  beginning  of  the  disease.  Aside  from  the 
changes  in  the  skin  and  the  nasal  and  accessory  cavities,  especial  atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  changes  in  the  lungs  (embolic  glanderous  nod- 
ules (Fig.  128),  glanderous  growths  sometimes  of  considerable  magni- 
tude). Furthermore,  emboli  occur  particularly  in  the  liver,  spleen,  kid- 
neys, testes,  muscles,  heart  brain,  and  bones.  The  above-described  lesions 
will  also  be  found  in  the  lymph  glands. 

The  anatomic  recognition  of  glanders  is  of  especial  importance.  The 
glassy-gray,  transparent,  or  translucent  appearance  of  the  glanders  nod- 


Fig.  128.  Old  glanders  nodule  from  the  lung;  a,  central  necrosed  portion; 
b,  innermost  cellular  capsule;  c,  connective  tissue  capsular  layer,  x  30  cliam. 
After  Ostertag. 

ules,  their  red  area  and  involvement  of  the  corresponding  lymph  glands 
(swollen  and  nodular  on  section),  have  been  emphasized  by  Ostertag. 
Schiitz  has  also  called  attention  to  chromatotexis  of  the  pus  cells  in  glan- 
ders, in  which,  during  progressive  cell  necrosis,  the  chromatin  of  the 
nuclei  is  broken  up  into  fine  granules.  A  bacteriological  and  cultural  test 
is  indicated  in  all  suspected  cases,  which  are  to  be  immediately  turned  over 
to  the  veterinary  police  authorities.  The  work  of  practical  meat  inspec- 
tion does  not  permit  of  animal  experiments,  as  a  rule. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  285 

In  order  to  avoid  confusion  with  other  diseases,  there  must  be  con- 
sidered parasitic  lung  nodules  (calcareous  and  fibrous  nodules)  ;  small 
multiple  areas  or  processes  in  traumatic  pneumonia ;  embolic  lung  nodules 
in  pyemia  and  strangles  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis  and  botryomycosis  of 
the  lungs,  leukemia,  colt  distemper  and  nasal  catarrh.  In  all  of  these  dis- 
eases the  characteristic  glanderous  lesions  will  be  absent,  or  similar  find- 
ings will  be  found  to  differ  on  comparison. 

Judgment. — Upon  the  recognition  of  glanders  in  the  living  animal, 
its  slaughter  is  to  be  prohibited  and  the  necessary  sanitary  precautions 
left  to  the  veterinary  police.  The  meat  of  glanderous  animals  is  to  be 
declared  unfit  for  food  as  it  is  dangerous  to  health. 

From  a  veterinary  police  standpoint  there  must  be  considered 
the  compulsory  reporting  and  killing  of  the  diseased  animals,  the  latter  to 
be  done  under  the  direction  of  the  regular  veterinarian ;  also  the  removal 
of  the  cadaver  which  is  not  to  be  skinned. 

Great  care  in  handling  glanderous  or  suspected  animals  is  urgently 
advised. 

[Solipeds  are  not  slaughtered  as  food  animals  in  the  United  States, 
and  as  glanders  is  chiefly  a  disease  of  solipeds  it  is  of  little  importance  in 
meat  inspection  in  this  country;  the  disease,  however,  may  be  trans- 
mitted to  sheep  and  goats,  and  it  is  only  natural  that  animals  showing 
lesions  of  glanders  should  be  condemned.] 

8,     Foot   and    Mouth   Disease 

This  peculiar  affection  of  cloven-foot  animals,  also  called  aphthous 
fever,  is  a  febrile  disease  starting  with  vesicles  or  blisters  on  the  muconc 
membranes  of  the  digestive  apparatus  and  outer  skin.  The  affection  mo. 
frequently  occurs  in  swine  and  cattle.  Sheep,  goats,  and  wild  cloven-footed 
animals  are  seldom  affected.  It  may  be  transmitted  to  cats,  fowls,  and 
human  beings. 

The  exact  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  known,  but  the  virus  is  filterable 
and  is  exceedingly  contagious. 

Pathogenesis. — The  initial  symptoms  of  the  infection  is  a  slight  inter- 
nal fever,  with  rapidly  forming  vesicles.  In  cattle  the  latter  appear  on  the 
lips  muzzle,  all  parts  of  the  buccal  mucous  membrane,  between  the  claws, 
on  the  pads  of  the  hoofs  and  around  the  coronary  band.  Exceptionally 
these  erosions  are  also  found  at  the  base  of  the  horn,  udder,  vulva,  peri- 
neum, and  on  the  scrotum  of  the  male.  In  sheep  and  goats  there  appear 
most  frequently  very  small  vesicles  between  the  claws ;  very  seldom  are 
lesions  found  in  the"  mouths  of  these  animals.  Swine  are  first  affected  in 
the  interdigital  space  and  around  the  supernumerary  digits ;  later  small 
vesicles  are  noticed  on  the  muzzle  and  snout. 


286 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


These  rapidly  appearing  blisters  soon  burst,  leaving  a  red,  moist  ero- 
sion. These  erosions,  as  a  rule,  heal  very  rapidly  and  are  covered  by 
shreds  of  epithelium  from  the  edges.  In  very  severe  cases  the  claws  may 
drop  off,  and  further  the  tendons  of  the  digits  may  become  affected  by 
extensive  suppuration,  or  suppurative  arthritis  may  develop  with  accom- 
panying septicemia  or  pyemia. 

The  disease  usually  takes  a  malignant  course  in  suckling  animals, 
which  generally  die  from  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines : 


Fig.  129.    Cysts  and  ulcers  on  the  gums,  the  latter  also  on  the  muzzle  of  a  cow 
affected  with  foot  and  mouth  disease.     After  Hutyra  and  AJarek. 

besides  a  malignant  type  of  disease  is  also  observed  in  older  animals  dur- 
ing certain  periods  of  the  plague,  when  the  animals  die  of  apoplexy  or 
with  manifestations  of  an  intoxication  in  connection  with  a  violent  type  of 
diarrhea. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions, — Besides  the  appearance  of  vesicles,  there  is 
lameness,  an  affection  of  the  buccal  mucous  membranes  and  dribbling  of 
saliva.  In  cattle  the  latter  appears  thick  and  tenacious,  containing  large 


Infectious  Diseases  in  Food  Animals,  etc.  287 

bubbles.  This  salivation  may  be  absent  in  cases  where  the  eruption  and 
formation  of  vesicles  are  on  the  posterior  parts  of  the  buccal  mucous  mem- 
brane in  which  cases  the  animals  swallow  the  saliva.  Besides  inappetence 
there  is  a  characteristic  "smacking"  noise  of  the  lips,  which  is  caused  by  a 
fast  in  and  out  motion  of  the  lips.  The  other  symptoms  of  this  disease 
appear  according  to  the  previously  mentioned  development  of  the 
disease. 

The  anatomical  changes  are  in  accord  with  the  development  of  the 
disease  and  include  moist  erosions  which  may  be  followed  by  complica- 
tions such  as  suppuration  and  ulceration  of  the  joints  and  feet. 

In  the  virulent  form  of  this  disease  the  lesions  present  themselves 
very  differently,  according  to  the  clinical  manifestations.  Severe  gastro- 
enteritis, multiple  embolic  myocarditis,  parenchymatous  or  amyloid 
degeneration  of  the  heart,  and  other  indications  of  blood  poisoning  are, 
however,  seldom  absent. 

The  recognition  of  typical  cases  of  foot  and  mouth  disease  is  not 
difficult.  In  the  early  stages  it  may  not  be  easily  recognized,  and  in  cer- 
tain conditions  the  disease  may  only  be  diagnosed  in  the  slaughtered  ani- 
mal. The  slaughtering  of  "suspects"  should  preferably  be  carried  out  in 
abattoirs  so  that  an  accurate  diagnosis  can  be  established  and  the  rapid 
eradication  of  the  disease  accomplished.  In  the  formation  of  vesicles  on 
the  dorsum  of  the  tongue,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  fungiform  papillae 
remain  standing  apparently  intact  in  the  eroded  places.  (Leutsch.) 

Other  lesions  of  the  oral  cavity,  which  may  be  confused  with  foot 
and  mouth  disease  are : 

I.     Traumatic  injuries  to  the  epithelium  of  the  mouth. 
II.     Chemical  and  thermic  injuries. 

III.  Superficial  actinomycotic  lesions. 

IV.  Pseudo-aphtha  (Leutsch)  or  erosive  stomatitis  (M.  Miiller). 

V.     Benign    stomatitis ;    stomatitis    bovis    specifica     (Ostertag    and 
Bugge,  Hess,  Peters,  Hajnal  [Stomatitis  oidica]). 

The  first  two,  as  a  rule  show  irregular  destruction  of  the  mucous 
membrane  or  deeper  tissues.  The  actinomycotic  erosions,  which  are  char- 
acterized clinically  by  very  slight  sensitiveness,  appear  as  sharply  cir- 
cumscribed, mostly  rounded  defects  of  the  mucous  membrane  with 
brownish-red  base,  from  which  flat,  reddish,  button-like  proliferations 
gradually  protrude  like  mushrooms. 

In  pseudo-aphtha  or  erosive  stomatitis,  the  lesions  range  in  size  from 
a  pea  to  a  penny  and  commence  as  flat  elevations  on  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  mouth.  Small  amounts  of  saliva  dribble  from  the  mouth, 
but  the  appetite  is  not  destroyed:  later  these  elevations  change  into  super- 
ficial ulcerations.  Occasionally  fever  and  depression  accompany  this  dis- 
ease. The  origin  of  this  affection  is  not  known. 


288  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Erosive  stomatitis  ononidea,  according  to  Miiller,  is  produced  only 
by  eating  Ononis  spinosa,  or  O.  rep  ens,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  accompanied  by 
inappetence. 

The  benign  stomatitis  can  be  transmitted  to  calves,  and  otherwise 
corresponds  to  pseudo-aphtha.  In  the  benign  buccaul  eruptions,  described 
by  Hess,  papules  form  on  the  mucous  membrane  and  border  of  the  lips 
in  sizes  ranging  from  a  hemp-seed  to  a  pea,  in  the  center  of  which  appears 
a  quickly  bursting  vesicle.  After  this  bursting  occurs,  superficial  ulcers 
are  observed.  The  general  health  of  the  animal  is  not  disturbed  and  the 
disease  is  not  transmissible. 

The  following  hoof  diseases  enter  into  consideration  in  differential 
diagnosis : 

(1)  Animals  transported  over  hard  and  stony  roads  are,  as  a  rule, 
affected  with  hardening  of  the  pad  of  the  hoof,  which  occurs  uniformly 
on  all  four  feet. 

(2)  Contusions  of   the    feet    in    hogs    are    not    infrequently    seen, 
mostly  in  but  one  foot,  which  shows  infiltration  of  blood  without  vesicles, 
or  a  small  blood  blister  on  the  coronary  band. 

(3)  Swelling  of  the  coronary  band  and  pad,  due  to  long  standing  on 
wet  ground. 

(4)  Inflammation   of  the  interdigital  space,  especially   foot-rot  in 
sheep,  but  there  are  no  vesicles  present. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  this  disease  should 
not,  as  a  rule,  be  condemned  on  account  of  the  disease  itself.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  diseased  parts  must  be  scalded  on  account  of  the  danger 
of  spreading  the  disease  to  animals  and  man.  In  febrile  cases  and  com- 
plications, the  clinical  appearance  and  anatomical  lesions  are  decisive  in 
the  utilization  of  the  meat. 

From  the  standpoint  of  veterinary  police,  compulsory  notification  of 
the  disease  should  be  observed.  The  hide  should  not  be  permitted  to  be 
moved  from  the  premises  until  dried  unless  a  direct  shipment  is  made  to 
the  tannery.  Only  the  veterinary  inspector  is  to  decide  on  this  question, 
as  well  as  on  the  disposition  of  the  affected  parts.  In  consideration  of  the 
easy  dissemination  of  the  disease  by  the  inspectors  themselves,  the  great- 
est care  is  advised. 

[Foot  and  mouth  disease  does  not  exist  at  the  present  time  in  the 
United  States,  and  therefore  it  does  not  concern  the  meat-inspection  serv- 
ice of  this  country.] 

9,     Variola 

Of  the  pock-like  diseases  which  occur  in  all  animals  that  are  slaugh- 
tered for  their  meat,  the  pox  of  sheep  and  the  vaccination  pox  of  calves 
are  of  importance. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  289 

(a)     Sheep  Variola 

Sheep  pox,  which  has  been  absent  in  Germany  for  a  number  of  years, 
has  recently  reappeared.  It  is  produced  by  an  easily  disseminated,  filter- 
able virus,  whose  pathogenicity  varies.  It  is  probable  that  it  is  taken  into 
the  system  through  the  air  passages. 

Pathogenesis. — After  a  period  of  6  or  8  days'  incubation,  the  clinical  symptoms 
of  sheep  variola  appear,  beginning  with  fever,  debility,  loss  of  appetite,  suppurative 
conjunctivitis  with  swelling  of  the  lids,  severe  muco-purulent  nasal  and  pharyngeal 
catarrh,  and  foul  odor  from  mouth  and  nose.  After  a  day  or  two  there  appear 
red,  round,  or  oblong,  nettle-rash-like  excrescences  (Roseola  variolosa  according  to 
Hutyra  and  Marek)  in  the  skin  of  those  portions  of  the  body  which  are  devoid  of 
wool  or  only  slightly  woolly,  such  as  the  vicinity  of  the  eyes,  cheeks,  lips,  alae  nasi, 
inner  part  of  thighs,  under  surface  of  tail,  lower  chest,  and  posterior  part  of  the 
abdomen. 

In  the  normal  course  of  the  disease  pimples  develop  in  these  spotted  areas, 
which  may  increase  at  their  base  to  the  size  of  a  penny  (Stadium  papulosum}. 
From  under  the  surface  of  the  papules  exudes  a  tenacious  fluid  which  soon  forms 
vesicles  (S.  resiciilosum},  containing  a  yellowish  or  slightly  reddish  fluid. 
By  the  6th  or  7th  day  this  becomes  cloudy  and  purulent  (5*.  pustulosum,  S.  suppura- 
tionis).  A  crust  or  scab  (S.  crustosum)  follows  desiccation  of  the  vesicle,  which 
dries  and  later  falls  off. 

As  the  skin  and  subcutis  become  edematously  infiltrated  at  the  diseased  areas 
there  occurs  swelling  of  these  portions  of  the  body,  which  may  be  especially  marked 
at  the  head  and  extremities. 

In  some  epizootics  the  pustular  stage  is  absent  at  first  and  during  the  further 
course  of  the  disease  develops  slowly. 

Although,  the  constitutional  condition  of  the  sheep  improves  with  the  decrease 
of  the  eruption,  severe  catarrh  of  the  mucous  membranes  will  remain  in  some  cases, 
followed  by  catarrhal  pneumonia.  A  sweetish,  nauseating  odor  emanates  from 
these  animals;  they  cease  to  feed,  and  finally  succumb  to  the  disease. 

Among  other  complications  there  are  of  especial  significance  the  appearance  of 
extensive  hemorrhages  (Variola  hemorrhagica),  the  confluence  of  the  pox,  and  the 
development  of  gangrenous  pox,  in  which  septicemia  or  pyemia  leads  to  fatal  results. 

The  symptoms  and  lesions  in  the  live  animal  are  as  above  described. 
In  the  slaughtered  animal  we  find  corresponding  lesions  in  the  skin  and 
the  subcutis  of  the  mucous  membranes,  where  pock  vesicles  may  also 
appear  and  give  the  sign  of  only  slight  or  of  severe  general  constitutional 
involvement  (pyemia  or  septicemia). 

Judgment. — If  sheep  are  slaughtered  while  suffering  from  variola, 
which  rarely  occurs,  the  meat  may  under  most  favorable  circumstances  be 
admitted  as  impaired  in  value.  In  complications,  especially  extensive  sup- 
purations and  gangrenous  or  putrid  pox,  the  meat  is  to  be  condemned  as 
unfit  for  food.  If  the  pox  are  healing  and  the  nutrition  of  the  sheep  is 
good,  the  meat  is  serviceable  for  food. 

20 


290  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  veterinary  police  regulations,  compulsory 
notification  is  required  and  the  disposition  of  the  hides  should  be  in 
accordance  with  the  instruction  applying  to  hides  from  animals  affected 
with  foot  and  mouth  disease,  great  care  being  necessary  on  accouut  of  the 
easy  manner  in  which  pox  contagion  is  spread. 

(b)  Cowpox 

While  the  spontaneous  appearance  of  cowpox  from  a  meat-inspection 
standpoint  is  insignificant,  the  vaccination  pox  of  calves,  which  is  artifi- 
cially produced  in  special  institutions  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  vac- 
cine lymph  for  protective  vaccination  of  mankind  against  smallpox, 
deserves  special  mention.  Following  the  slaughter  of  calves  from  which 
lymph  of  vaccine  vesicles  is  taken  as  above  mentioned,  the  carcasses  are 
inspected,  but  they  do  not  offer  any  ground  usually  for  condemnation.  By 
way  of  exception  a  febrile  intercurrent,  intestinal  catarrh,  with  ensuing 
deterioration  of  the  flesh,  causes  this  class  of  meat  to  be  considered  of 
inferior  quality. 

Imperfect  scarification  on  the  lower  abdomen,  leads  occasionaly  to 
gelatinous  infiltration  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue  and  of  the  superficial 
muscular  layer,  in  which  case  the  altered  portions,  with  the  adjacent  lymph 
glands,  must  be  rejected  as  unfit  for  human  food. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  6,  carcasses 
of  vaccine  animals,  when  affected  as  described  under  Regulation  n,  sec- 
tion 3,  should  be  condemned.] 

10.    Tetanus 

By  tetanus  is  understood  a  specific  infectious  disease,  the  exciting 
cause  of  which  produces  in  the  body  tonic  contractions  of  the  transversely 
striated  muscles,  through  the  formation  of  toxic  substances  acting  on  the 
nervous  system.  Tetanus  appears  in  all  food  animals  and  especially  in 
horses  and  lambs. 

Pathogcnesis. — The  Cause  of  Tetanus. — The  tetanus  bacilli  or  their 
spores  penetrate  a  wound  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane  of  the  body, 
multiply  in  the  coagulated  blood  or  in  the  necrotic  tissue  of  the  wound 
without  passing  through  the  blood,  form  spores,  and  produce  toxins, 
tetanotoxin,  tetanolysin  (Ehrlich)  which  are  carried  through  the  blood 
and  lymph,  as  a  result  of  which  there  is  an  increased  reflex  excitability  of 
the  spinal  cord  and  nerves,  with  consecutive  tetanic  muscular  contraction. 

The  tetanus  bacilli.  (Fig.  130)  are  3-5  microns  long,  and  0.3-0.5  microns  wide, 
motile,  anaerobic,  and  as  soon  as  their  terminal  spores  are  formed  appear  as  stick- 
pins in  shape.  They  stain  by  the  ordinary  stains  and  also  by  Gram's  method. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — From  clinical  appearances  there  is  only  to 
be  mentioned  the  progressive  stiffening  of  the  muscles,  which  following 
tetanic  contractions,  appear  as  hard  as  boards.  The  condition  begins  to 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc. 


291 


prevail  in  the  head  as  trismus  and  spreads  out  more  or  less  rapidly  to  the 
muscles  of  the  limbs.  With  this  there  are  present  .  excitability,  great  fear, 
frequent  sweatings,  and  increased  respiration. 

The  post-mortem  findings  are  generally  negative.    In  advanced  cases 
there  may  appear  evidences  of  imperfect  bleeding;  the  blood  is  blackish- 
red  and   improperly  coagulated,  ecchymoses   appear  on  the   serous   and 
mucous  membranes  and  also  on  the  heart. 
There  is  also  parenchymatous  degeneration 
of  the   liver,   heart,   kidneys,  and  muscles, 
certain   groups   of  which  show   a   diffused 
dirty  red,  bluish-brown,  soft  or  cooked  ap- 
pearance.     Hypostatic   pneumonia   may  be 
present. 

The  recognition  of  tetanus  is  as  difficult 
and  even  impossible  after  slaughter  as  it  is 
easy  during  life. 

It  may  be  mistaken  in  animals  slaugh- 
tered in  advanced  cases  for  septicemia. 
hemoglobinemia,  suffocation,  certain  cases 


Fig.     130.      Tetanus    bacilli 


of    morbus    maculosus    and    cerebro-spinal     agar    culture.      Carbol-fuchsin 
meningitis,  but  each  of  the  diseases  men-     •££»•     After    Kut*ra    and 
tioned  may  be  differentiated  from  tetanus 
by  one  or  more  of  their  specific  symptoms. 

Judgment.  —  Because  the  tetanus  bacilli  do  not  pass  through  the 
blood,  the  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  tetanus  when  slaughtered  early 
so  that  only  one  or  a  few  groups  of  muscles  are  diseased,  can  be  marked 
as  fit  for  consumption  after  rejecting  the  possibly  affected  meat,  but  it  is, 
however,  of  inferior  quality,  when  improper  bleeding  or  other  slight 
changes  (fetid  odor  and  taste,  deviation  in  color,  consistency,  and  keeping 
quality)  are  in  evidence.  If  there  exist  improper  bleeding  in  a  higher 
degree  or  degeneration  of  the  parenchyma,  the  meat  should  be  declared  as 
unfit  for  consumption  because  of  the  high  degree  of  deterioration.  The 
tissue  around  the  supposed  point  of  entrance  of  the  bacilli  must  also  be 
condemned. 

According  to  Kitasato,  the  tetanus  toxin  is  broken  up  and  destroyed  by  cook- 
ing at  65°  C. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  8,  carcasses 
of  animals  affected  with  tetanus  should  be  condemned.] 

11.      Malignant   Edema 

Malignant  edema  is  an  acute  febrile  wound  infection  which  appears 
spontaneously  in  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  less  often  in  other  food- 
producing  animals. 


292 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


A  particularly  prominent  form  of  malignant  edema  is  the  so-called 
parturient  symptomatic  anthrax,  the  careful  study  of  which,  by  Albert  and 
Carl,  has  demonstrated  with  great  certainty  that  genuine  symptomatic 
anthrax  cannot  develop  in  this  form  (Hutyra  and  Marek). 

Pathogenesis. — The  causative  factors  of  edema  are  ubiquitous  and  appear  nor- 
mally in  the  intestines.  They  are  slender  bacilli  3-5  ^  long,  0.8-1  ^  wide  (Figs.  131 
and  132),  with  rounded  ends  (thus  differing  from  anthrax  bacilli)  and  possess 
slight  motility.  They  form  chains  and  flagella,  aje  anaerobic,  and  therefore  do  not 


Fig.    131 

Fig.  131.  Bacilli  of  malignant  edema. 
Cover-glass  smear  preparation  stained  with 
methylene  blue,  x  500  diameters. 

Fig.  132.  Bacilli  of  maligant  edema.  Peri- 
toneal exudate  from  a  guinea  pig.  Cover- 
glass  preparation  stained  with  fuchsin.  x 
1,000  diameters.  After  Hutyra  and  Marek. 


Fig.    132 


appear  in  living  blood.  After  death  they  wander  out  of  the  intestines  into  the  portal 
blood  in  case  the  carcass  chills  very  slowly.  On  that  account  they  may  be  found  in 
the  spleen  after  24  hours;  and,  under  such  conditions,,  they  form  centrally  located 
spores  in  the  blood,  which  are  easily  stained,  but  not  by  Gram's  method. 

After  entrance  of  the  bacilli  into  the  connective  tissue,  there  develops  an  edema 
infiltrated  with  gas  bubbles,  the  reabsorntion  of  which  causes  fatal  constitutional 
disease. 


The  clinical  symptoms  are  manifested  by  quickly  progressive,  dough- 
like,  hot  swellings,  which  afterward  show  crepitation,  and  also  strong 
febrile  reaction. 

Lesions. — Yellow  gelatinous  infiltration  of  the  affected  connective  tis- 
sue and  of  the  surrounding  muscles,  together  with  infiltration  of  these 
areas  with  fetid-smelling  gas  bubbles  are  observed ;  the  parenchyma  is 
occasionally  not  affected,  but  sometimes,  however,  it  is  degenerated ;  by 
way  of  exception,  there  is  a  spleen  tumor  or  swollen  spleen.  In  cases 
where  the  disease  originates  in  the  uterus,  the  latter  is  slightly  contracted ; 
its  walls  are  edematous  and  the  mucous  membrane  is  swollen  with  the 
destruction  of  the  affected  cotyledons.  The  connective  tissue  of  the  small 
pelvis  is  edematously  infiltrated. 

For  recognition  of  malignant  edema,  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  con- 
sideration all  morphological  and  biological  characteristics  of  the  bacilli  of 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  293 

malignant  edema;  nevertheless  their  presence  is  not  decisive,  because 
they  can  spread  easily  into  the  body  of  an  animal  from  the  intestines  after 
death. 

It  can  especially  be  mistaken  for : 

1.  Symptomatic  Anthrax. — Here  the  foul  odor  of  the  edematous 
swellings  is  absent.  The  bacilli  of  symptomatic  anthrax  form  only  end 
spores  and  do  not  grow  in  filaments.    The  appearance  of  blackleg  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  country  is  to  be  considered,  and  also  the  fact  that  the 
muscles  are  only  occasionally  attacked  by  malignant  edema. 

2.  Anthrax. — In  malignant  edema  there  are  the  above-mentioned 
morphological  characteristic  of  the  bacilli,  their  absence  in  blood,  and  fail- 
ure in  inoculating  rats  and  guinea  pigs.     They  do  not  grow  on  potato 
and  gelatin   media.    Besides  those  differential   characteristics  mentioned 
there  is  no  crepitation  in  the  edematous  swellings  of  anthrax. 

3.  Inflammatory  Edema. — This  does  not  present  crepitation. 

4.  Subcutaneous  Emphysema. — In  this  case  fever  is  absent. 
Judgment. — Although  the  meat  is  not  injurious  to  health,  it  should 

be  declared  as  unfit  for  food,  principally  on  account  of  objectionable  alter- 
ations in  the  meat.  Only  seldom,  in  early  slaughtered  cases,  can  the  ques- 
tion of  passing  the  meat  as  of  inferior  quality  arise  after  the  rejection  of 
the  edematous  areas. 

[In  accordance  with  the  meat-inspection  regulations  of  the  United 
States,  carcasses  affected  with  malignant  edema  should  be  condemned, 
not  alone  on  account  of  the  possibility  of  dissemination  of  the  bacilli  all 
through  the  carcass  by  the  blood,  but  also  on  account  of  the  changes  of  the 
meat  produced  by  the  high  febrile  condition  of  the  animals  in  the  course 
of  the  disease.] 

12,     Septicemia 

By  the  collective  term  "septis"1  is  designated,  from  a  purely  scientific 
point  of  view,  a  severe  hemotolysis  brought  on  through  the  entrance  of 
infective  material  (microorganisms  or  ultra-visible  contagions)  into  the 
blood.  (Sepsis  in  a  narrow  sense.) 

For  practical  meat  inspection  those  hemotolytic  diseases  of  sepsis 
which  are  caused  by  the  entrance  of  products  of  pathogenic  bacteria 
(toxins  and  toxalbumins)  into  the  blood  or  by  the  combination  of  both  the 
former  and  latter  conditions,  that  is  through  the  infectious  material  as 
well  as  through  toxins,  are  to  be  considered  under  the  term  septicemia. 
(Sepsis  in  a  broad  sense.) 

It  can  also  deal  with  a  bacteriemia  or  a  toxinemia,  and  mixed  cases 
as  toxemic  bacteriemia. 


1  The  designation  "ichorus"  or  "putrid   blood    poisoning,"    for   sepsis,   should 
not  be  used  any  longer  in  consideration  of  the  etiology  of  the  latter. 


294  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

The  presence  of  toxins  produced  in  the  blood  through  the  activity 
of  saprophytic  bacteria,  causes  toxinemia,  which  is  called  putrid  intoxi- 
cation or  sapremia  in  contradistinction  to  septicemia. 

The  term  sepsis  includes  the  entrance  of  all  pathogenic  bacteria  and  their  tox- 
ines  into  the  blood  channels;  and  it  includes  also  the  spreading  of  purulent  matter 
through  the  blood,  though  the  disease  of  the  blood  termed  pyemia  constitutes  a 
special  affection  when  metastatic  suppurative  foci  develop  in  consequence  of  bac- 
terial dissemination. 

The  combination  of  septic  toxemia  and  pyemia  is  called  septicopyemia. 

It  is  evident  that  the  other  microparasitic  blood  infections  which  develop  under 
the  manifestation  of  sepsis  and  which  bear  distinct  names  (anthrax,  erysipelas,  etc.), 
on  account  of  the  well-defined  characteristics  of  their  causative  factors  as  specific 
blood  infections  belong  in  the  broadest  sense  to  septic  diseases. 

Patho genesis. — Although  there  a  re  still  no  definite  results  in  funda- 
mental investigations  for  exciting  causes  of  all  the  septic  diseases  of  food- 
producing  animals,  yet  certain  forms  of  the  streptococci  and  staphylococci 
should  be  etiologically  considered  here.  Doubtless  also  other  bacteria 
(for  instance,  certain  forms  of  coli,  Gartner's  enteritidis  bacillus)  cause 
septic  conditions,  and  it  is  probable  that  such  conditions  are  also  favored 
by  other  bacteria  (proteus)  under  certain  symbiotic  relations. 

The  point  of  entrance  for  the  exciting  causes  of  sepsis  can,  in  many 
cases  be  recognized  as  a  local  disease  (wounds,  inflammations,  and  disin- 
tegrating foci),  while  obscure  infections  do,  however,  occur  without  any 
noticeable  place  of  inoculation.  The  further  effects  of  the  deleterious 
microbes  result  from  the  above  explained  facts,  the  principal  factor  being 
always  the  formation  of  toxic  substances,  which  almost  invariably  cause 
a  fatal  termination  of  the  disease. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  as  well  as  the  anatomical 
appearances  of  septic  diseases  are  frequently  so  little  apparent  that  an 
especially  thorough  examination  and  careful  estimate  of  every  single 
symptom  are  absolutely  necessary.  Of  the  clinical  phenomena  the  follow- 
ing are  £o  be  given  special  mention : 

1.  High   fever    (in  cattle  41-42°   C),  beginning  occasionally  with 
rigor,  which  is  absent  only  in  very  exceptional  cases.     During  the  last 
stage  of  the  disease,  normal  and  subnormal  temperatures  appear. 

2.  Cardiac  weakness  and  greatly  accelerated,  wiry  pulse. 

3.  Severe   psychical    depression,    muscular    weakness,    tremor,    and 
paralysis  of  certain  nerve  regions,  which  however  in  most  cases  are  hard 
to  establish. 

4.  Dirty  red,  blurred  coloring  of  the  visible  mucous   membranes, 
showing  petechia  and  ecchymosis. 

5.  Drying  up  of  the  milk  during  lactation. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  295 

6.  The  presence  of  an  injury  or  of  a  suppurating  wound  upon  the 
surface  of  the  body  where  the  septic  disease  originated  or  discharge  of  an 
ichorous  nature  through  a  natural  orifice  of  the  body  (especially  from  the 
vagina),  but  such  areas  as  described  above  may  be  absent. 

In  the  post-mortem  examination  there  are  especially  to  be  observed : 

1.  Cloudy  swelling  of  the  heart,  liver,  and  kidneys,  which  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  fatty  degeneration.    The  latter  should  not  be  mis- 
taken for  normal  fatty  liver  of  animals  which  are  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
pregnancy  or  have  recently  given  birth  to  young. 

2.  Swelling  and  serous  infiltration  of  most  lymphatic  glands.  These 
may  also   be  permeated  by  isolated  hemorrhages   or  hemorrhagic   foci. 
Lymph  stasis,  following  obstruction  in  the  circulation  (as  for  instance  in 
traumatic  pericarditis),  should  not  be  mistaken  for  marked  saturation  of 
the  lymph  glands  in  the  dependent  portions  of  meat  that  is  hanging  up. 

3.  Petechia — ecchymosis  and  suggillations — under  the  serous  mem- 
branes and  in  the  mucous  membranes,  for  which  the  so-called  asphyxia- 
tion hemorrhages  should  not  be  mistaken  (page  215). 

4.  Bloody  imbibition  of  the  intima  of  the  great  blood  vessels. 

5.  Blood-stained  serous  exudates    in    the    thoracic   and    abdominal 
cavities. 

6.  Imperfect  coagulation  of  the  blood. 

7.  Insufficient  rigor  mortis  and  imperfect  bleeding. 

8.  Soft,  withered,  watery  character  of  the  meat,  which  has  a  singu- 
lar,  generally   dark  color,   and   sometimes   develops  a  peculiar   sweetish 
repugnant  odor,  which  as  a  rule  appears  only  during  the  cooking  test. 

9.  Alkaline  reaction  of  the  meat,  which  is  permanent  (this  should, 
however,  be  compared  with  page  38). 

10.  The  existence  of  a  center  of  origin  for  the  septic  disease,  which 
in  many  instances  may  be  present  only  as  an  insignificant  lesion,  and  some- 
times it  cannot  even  be  detected. 

11.  The  duration  of  the  course  of  the  disease  must  be  in  certain 
relation  to  the  intensity  and  the  time  of  supposed  infection. 

The  recognition  of  sepsis,  from  the  pronounced  view  of  the  disease,  is 
not  difficult,  especially  if  a  point  of  origin  can  be  demonstrated,  but  in  new 
cases  and  where  infection  is  obscure,  the  diagnosis  may  be  difficult.  In 
such  instances  all  changes,  even  insignificant  ones,  must  be  observed  and 
their  relative  importance  carefully  weighed.  There  should  always  be 
taken  into  consideration  the  fact,  correctly  pointed  out  by  Ostertag,  that 
the  more  prominent  pathological  changes  in  the  internal  organs,  by  which 
the  marked  symptoms  may  be  explained,  are  very  often  absent,  yet  sepsis 
is  present  regardless  of  the  fact  that  these  lesions  are  absent.  In  doubtful 
cases,  and  especially  where  immediate  slaughter  becomes  necessary,  a  sec- 


296  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

ond  examination  must  be  made  after  24  hours.  In  some  instances  the 
method  proposed  by  Basenau  (page  136)  may  be  of  aid  in  reaching  a 
diagnosis. 

The  septicemic  diseases  of  cattle  appear  chiefly  in  the  following 
forms,  only  the  most  important  characterisic  symptoms  of  which  are 
mentioned  here : 

1.  Septic  Polyarthritis    of    Calves,    following    septic    infection    of    the    navel 
(septic  paralysis   in   calves). — Flaccid    inflammation    of   the   navel,   with   dirty   red, 
offensive  secretions,  very  often  accompanied  by  ich'orous  disintegration  of  the  umbil- 
ical vessels,  serous  arthritis  with  gelatinous  infiltration  of  the  periarticular  portions, 
especially  of  the  tarsal  and  carpal  joints,  as  well  as  of  the  radio-ulnar,  hock,  and 
hip  joints,  tumefaction  and  marked  saturation  of  the  muscular  lymph  glands,  and 
sometimes  icterus  are  present. 

2.  Hemorrhagic  Enteritis  of  Calves,  which  runs  a  rapid  course,  so  that  in  some 
cases  no  cloudy  swelling  of  the  parenchyma  is  observed.     Bloody  diarrhea,  blood- 
stained intestinal  contents,  and  acute  hemorrhagic  enteritis,  especially  of  the  small 
intestines  with  swelling  and  bloody  saturation  of  the  mesenteric  lymph  glands  are 
observed.     The  disease  is  probably  a  form  of  scour  of  calves  (page  319). 

3.  Septic  Enteritis  of  Cattle,  similar  to    the    foregoing,    but    incomplete    with 
regard  to  symptomatology.     Every  inflammation  of  the  intestines  of  cattle,  accompa- 
nied by  severe  febrile  and  general  disturbances,  must  be  looked  upon  as  suspicious 
of  sepsis. 

4.  Septic  Metritis  of  Cows,  which   follows   retention   of   fetal   membranes,  or 
as  result  of  an  injury  to  the  genital  passages.     In  the  latter  there  are  mostly  diph- 
theritic patches  and  ulcers.  Septic  metritis  is  accompanied  by  pelvic  peritonitis,  satu- 
ration of  the  pelvic  connective  tissue  and  marked  infiltration  of  the  sacral  and  iliac 
lymph  glands.     It  has  been  emphatically  stated  by  Albrecht    that  not  all  febrile  dis- 
eases of  cattle  caused  by  metritis    are  of  septic  nature  from  the  beginning,  and  with 
timely  slaughter  and  good  bleeding  the  meat  may  not  be  injurious  to  health.     Per- 
haps Albrecht's  case  was  one  of  general   sapremic  affection,  caused  by  secondary 
retention  (page  300).     On  the  other  hand,  great  precaution  is  necessary  when  cat.le 
are  slaughtered  in  an  advanced  stage  of  the  disease,  in  case  of  incomplete  bleeding, 
or  of  extensive  gangrenous  alteration  of  the  genital  passages. 

5.  Septic  Pleuritis  and  Peritonitis,  which  are  caused  by  external  injuries,  or 
coming  from  the  intestines,   respectively,  or  by  bursting  of  abscesses  or  ichorous 
processes. 

6.  Septic  or  Traumatic  Pericarditis. — This  affection  appears  only  in  cattle,  and 
is  caused  by  penetration  of  foreign  bodies  through  the  stomach  into  the  pericardium. 
All  cases  of  pericarditis,  however,  are  not  accompanied  by  offensive  secretions  of 
septic  nature. 

7.  Septic  Mastitis   of   Cows. — This   is   distinguished    from   other   inflammatory 
conditions    of    the    udder    by    its    rapid    progress,    accompanied    by    severe    general 
sympioms.     It  may  affect  at  least  one-half  of  the  udder  or  the  entire  udder  which  is 
considerably  swollen,  dark-red  and  hot,  with  corresponding  swelling  and  infiltration 
of  the  lymph  glands  of  the  udder.     Extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the  abdominal 
wall  and  to  the  surface  of  the  inner  thigh  may  follow. 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  297 

8.  Septic  wounds  and  injuries  of  any  kind  and  origin  may  lead  to  septicemia. 
Wounds  of  the  joints  are  predispesed  thereto,  as  are  also  deep  puncture  wounds  with 
improper  drainage,  as  well  as    wounds    on    the    digits,  with    extensive    destruction 
nf  tissue. 

9.  In  classifying  morbus  maculosus    (petechial   fever,   purpura  hemorrhagica) 
of    horses    and    cattle    under    septicemic    forms,   I   agree   with    Ostertag,   Hutyra, 
Marek,  and  others  in  regard  to  the  most  striking  symptoms  of  the  disease,  i.   e., 
hemorrhages  and  marked  changes  in  the  parenchyma    indicate  that  morbus  macu- 
losus is  a  septic  intoxication. 

Judgment. — From  experience  gained  in  cases  of  poisoning  of  per- 
sons by  meat,  it  is  essential  that  carcasses  of  all  food  animals  affected  with 
sepsis  should  be  considered  as  unfit  for  human  food  on  account  of  their 
danger  to  health  and  disposition  made  of  them  in  such  manner  as  would 
cause  no  harm.  Inasmuch  as  the  toxalbumins  of  septicemia  bacteria  are 
not  positively  destroyed  by  heat,  the  use  of  this  meat  even  in  a  cooked  con- 
dition is  not  permitted. 

The  practice  proposed  by  Basenau,  namely,  the  feeding  of  fresh  and 
cooked  meat  to  mice  to  prove  that  it  is  poisonous,  cannot  be  recommended 
universally  on  account  of  the  circumstances  frequently  accompanying  sus- 
pected cases  of  septicemia. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  sections  5  and 
i8a,  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  septicemia  should  be  condemned.] 

13,     Pyemia 

Pyemia  is  a  disease  of  the  blood  caused  by  microorganisms  entering 
into  the  circulation  and  resulting  in  the  development  of  metastatic 
abscesses,  or  suppurative  osteomyelitis  (osteomyelitis  suppurativa).  It  is 
described  as  a  purulent  blood  poisoning. 

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*1    $.    %F*\\      \  \£ 

-v  -•••  /    s  : 

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Fig    133  "'"  V  /  X"V" 


Fig-  133-    Staphylococcus  pyogenes.    Stained  '•• 

preparation  from   a  pure   culture,      x  1,000  di-  \^       ... 

ameters.     After  Weichselbaum.  .„ •**-••:   \ 

**""  i  ;     j 

Fi?.  n4.     Streptococcus  pyogenes.     Stained  •        /     • 

preparation   from    a  pure   culture,      x  i  ooo  di- 
ameters.    After  Weichselbaum.  Fig.  134 

Pathogcnesis. — The  pus-forming  microorganisms  which  are  the 
exciting  causes  of  pyemia,  are  principally  staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus 
(micrococcus  pyogenes  Fig.  133)  and  streptococcus  pyogenes  (Fig.  134), 


298  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

which  usually  enter  the  blood  by  a  local  suppurative  focus  direct  or 
through  the  lymph  channels,  but  the  disease  may  also  develop  from  an 
obscure  origin. 

As  long  as  bacteria  circulate  in  the  blood  they  will  produce  fever ; 
elimination  therefrom  follows  partly  through  their  having  been  deposited 
in  the  various  organs,  of  which  according  to  the  point  of  inoculation,  the 
lungs  and  liver  come  first  into  consideration,  then  the  kidneys,  spleen,  bone 
marrow,  joints,  muscles,  brain,  etc.  The  results  of  suppurative  emboli 
differ  according  to  the  character  of  the  pyogenic  bacteria.  In  cases  where 
the  beginning  of  embolic  suppurative  foci  are  characterized  by  the  appear- 
ance of  grayish-yellow  areas  that  are  surrounded  at  first  by  a  red  zone, 
they  may  be  considered  principally  streptococcic  emboli.  From  these  foci 
abscesses  develop  in  the  interior  of  the  organs,  their  growth  being 
arrested  by  encapsulation  and  later  the  abscesses  become  consolidated  by 
drying  and  calcification.  Accordingly,  recovery  from  pyemia  is  possible, 
and  is  not  infrequent  in  food  animals.  The  disseminated  pus-forming 
organisms,  however,  may  also  produce  suppurative  inflammation  of  the 
serous  membranes. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  changes  described  below  occur  in  the 
marrow,  they  should  be  considered  staphylococcic  emboli  (Ostertag). 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Clinically,  the  disease  can  only  be  diag- 
nosed as  pyemia  by  the  presence  of  local  suppurations,  accompanied  by 
intermittent  high  fever  and  depression.  If,  in  addtion,  there  is  inflamma- 
tion of  the  joints  and  of  the  bones,  or  if  affections  of  the  lungs  or  kidneys 
are  manifested,  then  the  seat  of  the  metastatic  abscesses  are  indicated.  The 
pathological  lesions  are  the  result  of  the  pathogenic  effect  of  the  bacteria. 
It  is  to  be  especially  observed,  however,  that  as  long  as  actual  pyemia 
exists,  there  are  always  manifest  appearances  of  severe  infection  of  the 
blood  and  particularly  cloudy  swelling  of  the  parenchyma,  punctiform 
hemorrhages  in  the  kidneys,  lymph  glands,  and  under  the  serous  mem- 
branes ;  these  are  present  in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  punctiform, 
puriform  foci,  or  suppurative  inflammation,  and  changes  in  the  bone 
marrow. 

The  recognition  of  pyemia  in  slaughtered  animals  is  not  difficult 
when  the  disease  is  well  developed.  In  the  first  stages,  diagnosis  will  have 
to  be  established  even  without  the  presence  of  the  metastatic  suppurative 
foci,  through  the  other  manifestations  of  a  general  blood  infection,  if  local 
suppuration  or  local  osteomyelitis  be  visible ;  when  doubtful,  the  unfavor- 
able should  always  be  accepted. 

Although  pyemia  may  develop  as  a  consequence  of  any  local  suppura- 
tive process,  the  following  forms,  whose  symptomatology  deserve  only 
slight  mention,  may  be  particularly  noted: 


Infectious  Diseases  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  299 

1.  Pyemic  Polyarthritis,  occurring  especially  in  calves    (suppurative  lameness 
in  calves,  suppurative  inflammation  of  umbilical  vein).     It  can  also  exist  without  a 
conspicuous  affection  of  the  umbilicus,  as  a  disease  of  the  carpal,  tarsal,  radio-ulnar, 
hock,  and  femero-tibial  joints  with  corresponding  general  symptoms.     Attention  is 
also  called  to  the  fact  that  numerous  instances  of  recovered  cases  of  pyemia  in 
calves  have  been  noted. 

2.  Henwrrhagic  and  Purulent   Osteomyelitis  is   often   of   obscure   origin.     At 
first  there  is  hyperemia  of  the  bone  marrow  with  hemorrhages   therein,  but   later 
puriform    softening   of   the   bone   marrow   occurs    with    suppurative   ulcerations   in 
the  joints. 

3.  The  Pyemias  following  Swine  Plague  and  Caseous  Pneumonia,  especially  in 
sheep,  goats,  and  calves,  present  no  special  characteristics. 

4.  The  Pyobatillosis  of  Pigs,  under  certain  conditions,  may  run  the  course  of 
pyemic  cachexia;  but  symptoms  of  acute  intoxication  are  not  prominent. 

Judgment. — As  the  causes  of  suppuration  in  animals  and  man  are 
identical,  and  the  meat  of  pyemic  animals  contains  pus-producing  bacteria 
with  their  metabolic  products  (toxalbumins),  and  as  such  meat  has  been 
shown  to  be  injurious  to  the  health  of  mankind  from  numerous  poisonings 
which  have  occurred  through  infection,  it  must  be  designated  as  unfit  for 
human  food,  for  even  boiling  does  not  remove  its  injurious  properties. 

It  is  not  yet  clear  whether  the  toxicity  of  the  meat  from  pyemic  ani- 
mals is  due  to  the  pus-producing  organisms  alone,  or  more  to  the  intro- 
duction of  other  microorganisms  (enteritidis  bacilli,  coli  forms)  from 
the  intestines  into  the  many  juices  of  the  body  as  a  result  of  the  severe 
constitutional  disease. 

When  metastatic  abscesses  occur  in  the  animal  body,  without  any 
constitutional  symptoms — processes  which  therefore  do  not  belong  to 
pyemia  as  such,  and  can  be  viewed  only  as  possibly  healed  pyemia — the 
portions  of  the  carcass  not  infected  are  always  to  be  considered  as  harm- 
less. It  is  not  necessary  that  there  always  exists  a  distinct  encapsulation 
of  the  abscesses ;  but  in  no  case  should  there  be  present  any  signs  of  blood 
poisoning.  As  to  whether  in  the  cases  of  multiple  abscess  formation  the 
utilizable  meat  portions  are  to  be  declared  of  impaired  value,  depends  on 
the  nutritive  condition  of  the  animal,  the  extension  of  the  metastases, 
their  intensity  and  location,  as  well  as  to  any  changes  in  the  meat  (varia- 
tion of  odor  and  consistency  from  that  of  normal  meat).  In  certain  cases 
(for  instance,  suppuration  of  the  body  lymph  glands  and  joints,  muscular 
abscesses)  it  may  be  necessary  to  consider  the  meat  as  unfit  for  food  on 
account  of  its  deteriorated  or  spoiled  condition. 

For  hypophrenic  abscesses,  see  page  210. 

Contamination  of  meat  with  pus  from  the  heart  or  abdominal  veins,  in  which 
pus  enters  after  death  from  rupture  of  hypophrenic  and  hepatic  abscesses,  has  been 
described  by  Lohbeck,  Reimers,  Haffner. 


300  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  sections  5  and 
i8a,  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  pyemia  should  be  condemned.] 

14,     Putrid    Intoxications 

Putrid  intoxication  or  sapremia  (Ostertag)  recently  separated  from 
the  clinical  diagnosis  of  septicemia  is  more  rarely  observed  in  meat  inspec- 
tion since  septic  processes  are  frequently  associated  therewith.  Sapremia  is 
an  intoxication  of  the  blood  produced  by  resorption  of  the  products  of 
metabolism  of  saprophytes  (saprophytic  bacteria)  which  settle  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  organism  not  engaged  in  nutrition  (necrotic  areas  thrombi, 
hematoma,  retained  secretions  and  excretions),  and  produce  decomposi- 
tion. The  bacteria,  it  is  true,  produce  constitutional  disturbances,  but  this, 
however,  is  not  marked,  as  the  toxins  present  in  the  blood  are  destroyed 
by  active,  healthy  cells.  Parenchymatous  affections  are  absent  or  are 
insignificant  on  post-mortem  of  sapremic  animals,  but  they  invariably 
show  a  putrefactive  process  of  bad  odor. 

In  traumatic  pericarditis  of  cattle  there  may  be  occasionally  observed 
pure  clinical  examples  of  sapremia.  In  these  cases  there  will  frequently 
be  found  marked  changes  in  the  heart  and  pericardium  with  very  mal- 
odorous masses  of  exudates,  showing  no  signs  of  fever  during  life,  nor 
presence  of  any  other  pathologic  lesions.  In  such  cases  the  meat  is  not  to 
be  considered  injurious  to  health,  though  of  impaired  value,  in  view  of 
its  diseased  condition.  Occasionally  the  meat  will  be  found  edematous, 
or  organic  disease  of  other  organs  may  be  present  and  for  this  reason  it 
will  be  necessary  sometimes  to  declare  the  meat  as  unfit  for  food. 

On  account  of  the  possibility  of  transmission  of  the  putrid  odor  from 
the  exudative  masses  in  the  pericardial  sac  to  the  rest  of  the  meat,  the 
boiling  test  should  always  be  applied. 

In  retained  placenta  of  cattle  there  may  develop  at  the  beginning  a 
purely  sapremic  constitutional  disease,  which  may  lead  to  recovery  under 
proper  treatment  in  spite  of  slight  or  moderate  fever.  In  these  cases  the 
meat  of  animals  slaughtered  early  and  showing  no  signs  of  sepsis  is 
harmless.  However,  on  account  of  complications  with  inflammatory 
lesions  of  the  uterus  (septic  metritis),  care  should  be  exercised. 

[Carcasses  showing  putrid  intoxications  are  judged  in  the  meat 
inspection  service  of  the  United  States  on  the  same  lines  as  infection  with 
septicemia  or  pyemia,  and  therefore  should  be  condemned.] 

Erysipelas  of  Hogs. — Although  more  recent  observation  shows  the  possibility 
for  transmission  of  erysipelas  of  hogs  to  man  under  certain  conditions,  this  form 
of  septicemia  will  be  treated  in  the  following  section  on  account  of  its  relation  to 
other  diseases. 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.          301 


B,      Infectious  Diseases   Characteristic   of  Food  Animals  But  Not 

Transmissible  to  Man 

1.     Swine  Erysipelas 

Erysipelas  of  swine,  also  called  rotlauf  and  bacillary  erysipelas,  is 
an  acute,  frequently  occurring  epizootic  disease,  produced  by  a  specific 
bacillus  (Bacillus  rhusiopathice),  discovered  by  Loffler. 

According  to  certain  German  investigators,  the  disease  which  will 
later  be  described  as  urticaria  belongs  etiologically  to  erysipelas,  but  is, 
however,  to  be  differentiated  from  the  latter  for  practical  reasons.1 

Patho genesis. — The  erysipelas  bacilli,  which  may  also  develop  ecto- 
genously,  gain  admission  to  the  organism  through  the  digestive  tract  or 
through  wounds  of  the  skin.  Perhaps  they  are  regular  parasites  in  the 
body  of  the  hog  (intestines,  tonsils),  which  may  under 
certain  conditions  become  pathogenic,  according  to  the 
recent  observations  of  Olt,  Bauermeister,  and  Jensen. 

The  erysipelas  bacilli  are  about  0.8  to  1.5  ^  long;  o.i  to  0.2  ^ 
wide,  and  stain  with  basic  anilin  stains ;  also  by  Gram's  method 
(Fig.  135).  In  nutritive  gelatine  media  at  room  temperature  stab 
cultures  will  assume  the  characteristic  bottle-brush  shape  after 
3  or  4  days  (Fig.  136).  The  bacilli  are  not  particularly  resistent 
to  atmospheric  influences;  but  while  Petri's  observations,  which 
have  been  practically  verified  by  Stadie,  showed  that  the  usual 
preparation  and  conservation  methods  of  handling  meat  are  not 
sufficient  to  kill  the  organisms,  heating  in  steam  kettle  appa- 
ratus destroys  them. 

After  passing   through   mice,   the   erysipelas   bacilli   lose  their 
virulence   for   hogs    (Prettner). 

The  bacilli,  after  gaining  en- 
trance into  the  blood,  multiply  rap- 
idly, producing  toxins  whose  ac- 
tion extends  particularly  to  the 
blood,  the  larger  organs  of  the 
body,  and  the  nervous  system.  In 
the  majority  of  cases  the  disease 
runs  a  fatal  course,  and  on  account 
of  its  dangerous  character  fre- 
quently leads  to  the  emergency 
slaughter  of  the  animal. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  the 
living  animal,  redness  of  the  skin  is 

particularly  noticeable,  occurring  in  spots  on  the  inferior  part  of  the  abdo- 
men, inner  thigh  surfaces,  breast  neck  and  ears.  The  red  spots  spread 
rapidly,  turn  blue  or  brownish-red  and  are  evenly  discolored.  At  the  same 

f1  If  urticaria  were  a  chronic  form  of  erysipelas,  one  would  naturally  expect  to 
find  some  acute  cases  of  swine  erysipelas;  but,  although  the  former  prevails  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  this  country,  the  latter  has  never  been  observed.] 


Fig.  135 


Fig.  136 


Fig.  135.  Bacilli  of  swine  erysipelas. 
Dried  blood  preparation.  x  500  di- 
ameters. 

Fig.  136.  Erysipelas  bacilli,  stab 
culture  in  gelatine.  5  days  old  in  room 
temperature. 


302  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

time,  there  exist  severe  general  disturbances,  such  as  fever,  debility,  ano- 
rexia, constipation  followed  by  diarrhea,  accelerated  breathing,  etc. 

The  pathological  lesions  vary  with  the  stage  of  the  disease  during 
which  the  animal  was  slaughtered.  It  frequently  happens  that  when  the 
hog  is  being  scalded  redness  of  the  skin  becomes  even  more  intensified, 
and  may  extend  deep  into  the  subcutaneous  fatty  layer  (Speckschicht). 
In  addition  there  is  but  slight  "bleeding  out,"  insufficient  rigor  mortis, 
enlargement  of  the  spleen,  parenchymatous  degeneration  of  the  liver,  heart 
and  kidneys,  which  latter  usually  show  hemorrhagic  inflammation,  hemor- 
rhages beneath  the  serosa  and  in  the  cortical  layer  of  the  kidneys,  hemor- 
rhagic gastro-enteritis,  swelling  of  the  intestinal  lymph  follicles,  enlarge- 
ment and  marked  transudation  of  the  mesenteric  glands  and  other  lymph 
glands,  which  may  also  show  punctiform  hemorrhages.  In  very  severe 
cases,  and  especially  in  cases  slaughtered  when  approaching  death,  the 
musculature  appears  sero-sanguinolent,  grayish-red,  and  has  a  tendency 
to  decompose  rapidly. 

Endocarditis  valvularis  verrucosa  may  be  observed  as  a  sequel. 

The  above-mentioned  symptoms  furnish  sufficient  basis  for  the  recog- 
nition of  the  disease,  the  demonstration  of  the  erysipelas  bacillus  being 
best  effected  through  specimens  taken  from  the  splenic  pulp.  Inoculated 
mice  or  pigeons  succumb  after  3  or  4  days,  and  a  culture  will  develop  the 
already  mentioned  characteristic  properties  within  the  same  period  of  time. 

In  order  to  avoid  confusion  in  the  recognition  of  erysipelas  there 
must  be  considered : 

1.  Swine  Plague  and  Hog  Cholera. — Both    resemble    in   the    acute 
stage  during  life  the  course  of  erysipelas ;  in  the  slaughtered  animal,  how- 
ever, the  anatomical  findings  will  differ  decidedly. 

2.  Urticaria. — This  disease  during  life  produces  characteristic  skin 
macules,  while  on  post-mortem  examination,  there  is  an  absence  of  the 
lesions  in  the  viscera.     At  most   there  may  be  present  enlargement  of  the 
spleen  or  liver,  if  the  animals  be  slaughtered  at  the  height  of  the  disease. 

3.  Erythema  of  Thermic  or  Mechanical  Nature. — These  are  con- 
fined to  the  skin  of  certain  portions  of  the  body  only,  and  in  mechanical 
causes  hemorrhages  occur ;  internal  lesions  are  absent. 

4.  Heat-stroke   (Hitzschlag),  which  frequently  occurs  in  the  sum- 
mer transportation  of  hogs,  is  accompanied  by  bluish-red  discolo rations  of 
the  skin,  the  latter,  however,  being  mostly  hypo  static ;  on  post-mortem 
examination  indications  of  suffocation  will  be  found. 

5.  Wound-erysipelas;  the  latter  being  almost  always  restricted  to 
the  head,  is  usually  unilateral  and  characterized  by  severe  infiltration  of 
the  subcutis  of  the  parts  affected.     Kleinert  has  observed  two  cases  in 
hogs  of  more  extensive  erysipelas  of  the  head,  breast,  abdomen,  outer  sur- 
face of  the  thighs,  back,  and  ears,  associated  with  putrid  metritis   (sup- 
purative  metritis). 


Infectious   Diseases   Characteristic   of   Food   Animals,   etc.       303 

6.  Anthrax,  which  is  very  rare 
in  hogs,  occurs  generally  as  gloss 
anthrax,  and  demonstration  of  the 
bacilli  confirms  the  diagnosis. 

For  judgment  of  erysipelas  in  hogs 
see  page  308. 

Urticaria. — Nettlefever,  or  diamond 
skin  disease,  of  hogs  is  a  macu- 
lar  hemorrhagic  dermatitis,  accompa- 
nied by  febrile  constitutional  symp- 
toms, and  runs  a  mild  course.  Since 
Lorenz,  Jensen,  Schiitz,  Luepke.  etc., 
have  demonstrated  erysipelas  bacilli 
in  the  skin,  the  disease  is  classed  with 
erysipelas,  although  the  other  symp- 
toms differ  from  it.1 

The  clinical  findings  are  character- 
ized by  flat,  red,  round,  or  rhombic 
skin  plaques,  which  rapidly  increase  in 
size  and  number.  In  the  slaughtered 
animal  the  plaques  usually  present  a 
rhombic  shape  (Fig.  137),  and  extend 
deep  into  the  cutis  and  even  into  the 
snbcutis.  Diseases  of  internal  organs 
are  absent  in  slight  cases,  but  severe 
cases  may  be  associated  with  splenic 
tumor  and  hyperemia  of  the  liver. 

The  recognition  of  urticaria  is  easy ; 
to  avoid    confusion,  it   will   be    neces- 
sary    to     consider     the 
diseases     mentioned     in 
discussion    on    differen- 
tial diagnosis  of  erysipe- 
las. 

Judgment. — The  dis- 
eased skin  areas  should 
be  removed  and  no  fur- 
ther restrictions  placed 
on  the  meat. 

137.     Side  of  a  hog  with  urticaria 

f1  In  this  country,  urticaria  has  never  been  found  associated  with  the  erysipelas 
bacillus,  and  furthermore  swine  erysipelas  does  not  exist  in  the  United  States.  The 
urticaria!  disease  found  in  post-mortem  work  is  caused  by  vaso-motor  changes, 
resulting  from  the  consumption  of  certain  food  stuffs,  as  in  other  species  of  animals.] 


304  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

In  Prussia  this  disease  is  subject  to  the  same  veterinary  regulations  as  erysip- 
elas, according  to  the  decree  of  March  n,  1902. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  21,  hogs 
affected  with  urticaria  may  be  passed  after  detaching  and  condemning 
the  skin.] 

2,      Swine  Plague 

Swine  plague  or  swine  septicemia  (Loffler,  Preisz)  is  a  subacute  or 
chronic  contagious  disease  of  hogs,  frequently  occurring  associated  with 
hog  cholera  in  the  same  animal.  The  pure  forms  of  swine  plague  are 
characterized  by  severe  pneumonia,  accompanied  by  pleuritis  and  pericar- 
ditis and  their  complications  and  sequellse. 

According  to  Ostertag,  every  inflammation  of  the  lungs  in  hogs 
which  cannot  be  proven  to  be  caused  by  foreign  bodies,  parasites,  tubercle 
bacilli  or  pus-bacteria,  is  to  be  suspected  as  being  swine  plague. 

Patho  gene  sis. — Swine  plague  is  caused  by  bacteria,  which  are  usually 
oval  in  shape,  but  occasionally  bacillus-like  (Bacillus  suisepticus).  They 
belong  to  the  group  of  bacteria  causing  hemorrhagic  septicemia  (Hueppe), 
i.  e.,  rabbit  septicemia  (Koch). 

The  bacteria  (Fig.  138)  are  about  i  ^  long,  0.5  ^  wide,  oval,  immotile,  and 
take  a  bipolar  stain  with  gentian  violet.  According  to  Preisz,  this  is  best  accom- 
plished when  stained  with  aqueous  fuchsin,  and  then  decolorized  with  alcohol  or 
weak  acetic  acid.  These  bacteria  are  found  in  the  blood  as  well  as  in  the  dis- 
eased tissues. 

The  bacteria  of  swine  plague  enter  the  body  through  the  respiratory 
organs  or  by  the  digestive  tract  and  from  thence  to  the  blood,  producing 
a  rapid  or  gradual  general  infection  similar  to  septicemia.  The  lungs  are 
the  sites  of  predilection  for  their  destructive  action.  In  accordance 
with  the  virulence  of  the  swine  plague  bacteria  there  are  various  "types" 
noted,  but  they  do  not  differ  morphologically. 

The  course  of  the  disease  may  be  peracute,  simulating  hemorrhagic 
septicemia;  acute,  as  a  multiple  caseous  pneumonia;  and  chronic  with 
the  symptoms  of  a  catarrhal  pneumonia,  the  latter  being  the  most  com- 
mon form.  Recovery  may  occur,  leaving  more  or  less  extensive 
pathologic  lesions,  such  as  adhesions  between  the  pleurae,  and  between  the 
lungs  and  pericardium,  fibrosis  of  the  lung  tissue,  and  caseous,  seques- 
trated areas. 

When  swine  plague  and  hog  cholera  occur  in  the  same  animal,  Preisz 
holds  that  in  acute  cases  the  latter  infection  is  primary,  while  the  former 
is  only  secondary. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  depend  on  the 
course  of  the  disease ;  for  at  one  time  they  are  of  general  septic  infection, 
while  at  others  those  of  pneumonia  will  predominate.  The  special  patho- 
logic conditions  are :  Severe  pneumonia  in  various  stages  of  hepatization 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.  305 

with  multiple  necrosed  areas,  hemorrhagic,  fibrinous  pleuritis  and  peri- 
carditis, and  occasionally  peritonitis  may  be  associated.  During  the  height 
of  the  disease  there  are  also  marked  enlargement  and  redness  of  the 
lymph  glands  with  hemorrhages  in  them  as  well  as  in  the  kidneys,  degen- 
eration of  the  large  organs,  and  occasionally  icterus. 

It  may  prove  quite  difficult  to  recognize  swine 
plague  in  the  living  animal;  therefore  diagnosis  in 
some  cases  cannot  be  made  with  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty  except  when   marked   pneumonic   symptoms 
(cough)  are  present.     In  slaughtered  animals  diag- 
nosis is  verified  by  the  above-mentioned  conditions, 
Fig    138.      Swine      ^37  bacteriological  examination,  and  through  inocu- 
plague  bacteria.  Dried      lation    of    white    mice,    which     die    in     from    one 
blood  preparation.      x  A,  ,..  ***.•»*  r  <• 

500  diameters.  to  three  days   time.     Only  in  acute  forms  of  swine 

plague  are  bacteria   found  in  the  blood,  while  in 

chronic  cases  they  are  only  present  in  parts  affected  though  according  to 
Junack,  it  is  impossible  to  find  bacteria  in  about  one-third  of  all  the  cases 
diagnosed  as  chronic  swine  plague.  Certain  types  of  the  Bacillus  suisepti- 
cus  develop  in  addition  to  short  forms,  long  threads  which,  however,  do 
not  occur  in  the  animal  body.  In  differential  diagnosis  the  following  dis- 
eases come  into  consideration : 

1.  Sii'ine  Erysipelas,  especially  in  acute  cases  of  swine  plague,  where 
red  coloration  of  the  skin  also  occurs,  but  is  present  only  in  those  parts 
of  the  body  involved  by  the  disease.     In  swine  erysipelas  there  are  no 
characteristic  pulmonary  changes  of  swine  plague ;  and  finally,  the  bacter- 
iologic     and     bacterioscopic     findings    will    establish    the    nature    of   the 
infection. 

2.  Hog  Cholera   in  its  initial  stages,  when  the  intestinal  changes  are 
not  yet  well  developed  or  when  mixed   infection   exists,   which   rapidly 
terminates  the  life  of  the  animal. 

3.  Tuberculosis  after  the  inflammatory    changes    have    run    their 
course.     In  swine  plague  there  are  no  characteristic  multiple  infections  of 
the  lymphatic  glands  as  in  tuberculosis,  the  areas  of  caseation  or  necrotic 
areas  of  the  lungs  being  without  new  formation  of  granulation  tissue  at 
the  periphery ;  nor  are  those  peculiar  secondary  nodules  of  tuberculosis 
present  in  the  vicinity. 

4.  Verminous  Pneumonias  which  occur  en  masse  and  may  be  read- 
ily recognized  by  the  presence  of  parasites. 

5.  Traumatic  Pneumonias. — These  lead  to  gangrene,  as  a  rule,  and 
are  found  in  the  main  lobes  of  the  lung. 

Regarding  the  judgment  of  swine  plague  carcasses  see  page  308. 

21 


306  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

Pyobacillosis  of  Pigs. — Pyobacillosis,  pyemic  cachexia  of  pigs,  occurs  in  young 
hogs  quite  frequently  as  a  nonacute  disease,  produced  by  the  Bacillus  pyogenes  suis, 
which  is  viewed  by  Grips,  Nieberle,  and  Glage  as  belonging  to  swine  plague.  The 
disease  is  characterized  by  catarrhal  changes  or  suppurative  catarrhs  of  the  intestines 
and  air  passages,  associated  with  sero-fibrinous  inflammation  of  the  pleura,  pericar- 
dium and  peritoneum,  as  well  as  suppurative  or  caseated  changes  in  the  lungs,  with 
hepatization  and  atelectasis  in  their  vicinity.  A  generalization  of  the  pyobacillus  and 
suppurations  in  the  joints,  bones,  tendon  sheaths,  muscles,  body  lymph  glands, 
mammae,  etc.,  are  also  observed. 

In  the  judgment  of  pyobacillosis,  its  form  of  appearance  and  the  nutritive  con- 
dition of  the  animal  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  As  the  latter  is  usually 
greatly  impaired,  the  entire  carcass  will  usually  have  to  be  condemned,  and  where 
the  suppurative  changes  are  generalized,  the  same  holds  good  also. 

As  pigs  are  rarely  slaughtered  while  affected  with  pyobacillosis  but  as  a  rule 
die  of  the  disease,  the  importance  of  meat  inspection  is  not  significant  in  this  disease. 

[In  the  United  States  carcasses  of  pigs  affected  with  pyobacillosis  should  be 
judged  on  the  same  principles  as  pyemia,  and  therefore  should  be  condemned.] 

3,     Hog  Cholera 

Hog  cholera,  or  swine  fever,  is  an  infectious  disease  of  hogs  which 
runs  partly  an  acute  and  partly  a  chronic  course,  characterized  by  marked 
lesions  in  the  digestive  apparatus  and  an  infiltration  of  the  lymph  appara- 
tus, especially  of  the  lymphatic  glands.  In  many  instances  the  disease 
occurs  complicated  with  swine  plague. 

Patho  gene  sis. — Until  quite  recently  the  Bacillus  suipestifer,  whose 
portal  of  entry  is  the  digestive  tract,  has  been  accepted  as  the  cause  of 
hog  cholera,  but  recent  investigations  indicated  that  the  disease  is  due  to 
an  ultramicroscopic  filterable  virus,  and  that  the  saprophytic  hog  cholera 
bacilli  bring  about  changes  only  secondary  to  the  conditions  produced  as 
a  result  of  the  presence  of  the  invisible  virus.  This  is  the  view  of  de 
Schweinitz  and  Dorset,  McFadyean,  Hutyra,  Ostertag.  and  Stadie. 
Schreiber-Landsberg  takes  issue  with  these  writers  and  still  adheres  to 
the  old  theory  that  the  Bacillus  suipestifer  is  the  exciting  cause  of  the 
German  hog  cholera,  and  that  it  acts  mainly  through  the  medium  of  its 
metabolic  products.  Schreiber  considers  the  filterable  virus  the  toxin 
which  is  formed  by  Bacillus  suipestifer  infection,  which  acts  as  an  aggres- 
sin  furthering  the  infection  and  mobilizing  the  hog  cholera  bacilli  in  the 
body.  Ostertag  and  Stadie  hold  this  view  of  Schreiber's  as  incorrect  and 
disproved  by  their  experimental  results.1 

The  Bacillus  suipestifer  (Fig.  139)  is  a  short,  motile,  typhoid-like  bacillus  with 
rounded  ends,  1.2-1.5  /*.  l°ng  and  0.6  ^  wide.  The  bacilli  lie  singly  or  arranged  in 
pairs  and  possess  flagella.  The  latter  may  be  indistinctly  visible  if  the  specimens  are 

f1  Hutyra  believes  that  the  invisible  filterable  virus  is  responsible  not  only  for 
so-called  hog  cholera,  but  for  swine  plague  as  well,  and  that  the  respective  bacilli 
of  these  previously  considered  separate  diseases  are  merely  secondary  invaders.] 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc         307 

stained  with  Loffler's  flagella  stain.  The  bacilli  stain  best  with  Loffler's  alkaline 
methylene  blue  solution.  The  swine-pest  bacilli  are  most  readily  found  in  the  mesen- 
teric  lymph  glands.  In  more  advanced  necrotic  changes  resulting  from  hog  cholera 
the  necrosis  bacilli  also  come  into  consideration  (Bang,  Preisz,  Karlinski,  Ostertag, 
Kitt). 

As  a  result  of  the  invasion  of  the  organism  by  the 
hog  cholera  bacilli  there  occur,  according  to  the  viru- 
lence of  the  bacilli  and  the  resistance  of  the  tissues, 
either  hemorrhagic  intestinal  inflammations  with  infec- 
tion of  the  blood  and  a  rapidly  lethal  course,  or  chronic 
forms  with  marked  destruction  of  the  intestinal  canal 
and  mesenteric  lymph  glands. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  in       pjg<    ,39>    Hog 

the  development  of  hog  cholera  vary.     In  acute  cases    cholera    bacilli. 
.  f  ..       .  i  •         r     i         i  •        Pure     culture.       x 

there  are   fever,   diarrhea,   red  petechia  of  the   skin,    ^  diameters 

with  exanthemata  on  the  ears,  nose  (snout),  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  thighs  and  around  the  anus,  suppurative  conjunctivitis, 
great  weakness  and  debility.  In  the  less  rapid  course  variable  symptoms 
arise  (constipation  and  malodorous,  green  diarrhea),  those  of  the  intes- 
tinal canal  predominating;  also  emaciation,  weakness,  chronic  skin  exan- 
themata with  crust  formation.  When  complicated  with  swine  plague, 
symptoms  of  chronic  lung  disease  with  dyspnea,  cough,  etc.,  may  be 
observed. 

The  pathologic  lesions  in  the  peracute  cases  correspond  to  those  of 
hemorrhagic  septicemia  with  croupous  and  necrotic  changes  of  the  intes- 
tinal mucosa.  In  less  acute  types  there  is  a  specific  affection  of  the  colon, 
the  mucosa  of  which  presents  croupous-diphtheritic  changes.  Correspond- 
ing to  the  solitary  and  multiple  lymph  follicles  of  the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane,  there  are  millet  to  hazelnut  sized  definitely  circumscribed  or 
confluent  caseous,  yellow,  button-like  projecting  ulcerations  covered  with 
a  crust-like  dirty  coat  (Fig.  140).  On  removal  of  the  latter,  the  irregular 
ulcers  are  exposed.  The  ileo-cecal  valve  especially  is,  as  a  rule,  pathog- 
nomonically  enlarged  and  caseated  (Ostertag).  The  above-mentioned 
changes  are  in  some  cases  recognizable  on  the  exterior  of  the  intestine  as 
prominent  yellowish-gray  spots.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  to  find  certain  portions  of  the  intestinal  wall  quite  rigid,  hyper- 
trophic,  or  even  the  entire  large  intestines  may  be  grown  together  into 
tough,  thick  rolls.  If  such  is  the  case  there  will,  as  a  rule,  be  found 
fibrous  adhesion  to  the  peritoneum  also.  Similar  characteristic  areas 
and  ulcers  develop  also  in  the  small  intestines.  The  mesenteric  glands  are 
always  swollen,  of  a  dark  bluish-red  or  pale  color,  and  partially  or  entirely 
caseated.  Similar  changes  are  also  usually  observed  in  the  cervical,  and 
occasionally  in  the  pelvic  lymph  glands.  Croupous-diphtheritic  mem- 


308 


Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


branes  may  also  be  found  on  the  mucosa  of  the  tongue,  cheeks,  gums, 
tonsils,  pharynx,  and  epiglottis.  The  spleen  may  be  enlarged  and  injected, 
and  the  kidneys  present  petechial  hemorrhages  in  the  cortex. 

If  a  multiple  caseous  pneumonia  is  present,  it  is  an  indication  of  a 
complication  with  swine  plague.     Whether  the  metastatic  bone  and  joint 

caseations  and  suppurations  in  the  chronic 
cases  are  a  part  of  the  descriptive  symp- 
toms of  hog  cholera  or  of  pyobacillosis, 
still  remains  to  be  proven. 

Recognition  of  the  developed  chronic 
forms  of  hog  cholera  is  not  difficult,  but 
the  following  diseases  must  be  considered 
in  differential  diagnosis : 

1.  Swine  Erysipelas  in  acute  and  pera- 
cute  cases  of  hog  cholera.     In  addition  to 
the  absence  of  the  swine  erysipelas  bacilli 
there  is  the  absence  of  the  intense  hemor- 
rhagic  nephritis  and  the  presence  of  intes- 
tinal lesions. 

2.  Tuberculosis  of  the  Digestive  Appa- 
ratus.— Differentiation  from  this  disease  is 
indicated  by  the    extensive    destruction    of 
the  intestinal  mucous  membrane,  the  total 
caseation  of  the  lymph  glands,  the  absence 
of  the  characteristic  tubercular  nodules  in 
the  vicinity  of  the   lesions,  the  absence  of 
calcification   in  the  affected   lymph   glands, 
and  the  absence  of  tuberculous  changes  in 
other  organs. 

Judgment  of  the  Meat  in  Swine  Erysipe- 
las, Szvine  Plague,  and  Hog  Cholera. — In 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  meat  of  these  dis- 
eased animals  has  frequently  been  used  for 
food  without  ever  having  incurred  any  im- 
pairment or  injury  to  man  it  can  hardly  be 

classed  as  injurious  to  health;  in  individual  cases,  however,  the  following 

should  be  considered : 

1.  The  entire  carcass  is  unfit  for  food  as  soon  as  marked  substantial 
changes    (congestion  of  blood,  serous  infiltration,  degenerations,  yellow 
discoloration)    of  the  musculature  or  fatty  tissue  is  observed,  or  when 
marked  emaciation  has  occurred. 

2.  In  all  other  cases,  with  the  exception  of  the  chronic   forms  of 
swine  plague  and  the  sequelae  of  this  disease  and  those  of  hog  cholera,  the 
carcass  in  all  three  of  these  diseases  is  to  be  considered  fit  for  food,  but 


Pig.  140.     Portion  of  large 
intestines  with  lesions  of  hog 
cholera. 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.         309 

subject  to  certain  conditions.  For  veterinary  sanitary  reasons  and  partly 
in  consideration  of  the  presence  of  the  causative  agents  in  the  blood  of 
cases  of  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  and  the  acute  forms  of  hog 
cholera,  the  meat  and  fat  are  to  be  boiled,  steamed  (rendered  into  lard), 
or  pickled.  The  portions  affected  by  the  disease  should  be  condemned. 

3.  In  case  of  slow  chronic  forms  of  swine  plague,  without  disturb- 
ance of  the  general  condition,  or  sequelae  of  this  disease  (adhesions,  cica- 
trices, capsulated  caseated  areas,  etc.),  or  of  hog  cholera   (caseation  of 
the  mesenteric   lymphatic  glands,   adhesions   of  intestines,   formation  of 
cicatrices  in  the  intestinal  mucosa),  only  the  affected  portions  of  the  meat 
are  to  be  condemned  and  destroyed.     The  remainder  of  the  carcass  is 
fit  for  food  without  any  restriction. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  10, 
paragraphs  1-4,  carcasses  which  are  well  nourished,  showing  only  slight 
limited  lesions  of  hog  cholera  or  swine  plague  may  be  passed ;  those  show- 
ing well-marked  and  progressive  lesions  shall  be  condemned,  while  those 
carcasses  in  which  the  lesions  are  more  extensive  than  those  of  carcasses 
to  be  passed,  yet  not  sufficiently  severe  for  condemnation,  may  be  ren- 
dered into  lard,  provided  they  are  cooked  by  steam  for  four  hours  at  a 
temperature  not  lower  than  220°  F.] 

4.  With  regard  to  judgment  of  urticaria,  see  page  303. 
Veterinary  Police  Regulation. — In  compliance  with  the  decree  of  the 

Imperial  Chancellor,  dated  September  8,  1898,  every  case  of  swine  ery- 
sipelas, swine  plague,  and  hog  cholera  is  to  be  reported,  in  all  parts  of  the 
Empire,  to  the  police  authorities  at  the  nearest  point  to  where  they  occur. 
Nonveterinary  inspectors  may,  under  the  inspection  regulations  of  the 
Imperial  meat-inspection  law,  inspect  only  light  forms  of  swine  erysipelas, 
provided  the  local  government  permits  the  exercise  of  this  function  (for 
instance,  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  prohibits  such  action). 

4,     Contagious  Pleuro'pneumonia  of  Cattle 

This  epizootic  disease  of  the  lungs  is  a  chronic,  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia  peculiar  to  cattle.  [It  was  eradicated  from  the  United  States 
in  1892.] 

Patho gene sis. — The  cause  of  the  disease,  according  to  Nocard  and 
Roux,  seems  to  be  minute,  motile  microorganisms  of  indefinite  morphol- 
ogy, which  enter  the  lungs  by  the  air  passages  and  gradually  produce 
progressive  pleuro-pneumonia,  beginning  in  the  connective  tissue  of  the 
lungs. 

Svniptoins  and  Lesions. — Since  the  clinical  symptoms  of  this  disease, 
when  occurring  in  isolated  cases,  can  never  be  diagnosed  on  ante-mortem 
inspection,  they  will  not  be  discussed  here. 


3io         Chap.   VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc 

The  anatomical  lesions,  however,  are  quite  characteristic  (Plate  II, 
Fig.  i).  The  unilateral  (left)  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  superficially 
recognized  by  a  varying  grade  of  pleuritis  and  the  coarse  condition  of  the 
changed  portion  of  the  lung,  which  contains  no  air.  Section  of  the  dis- 
eased area  will  reveal  marked  proliferation  of  the  interlobular  connec- 
tive tissue,  which  will  be  found  as  thick,  gelatinous,  intermixed  with 
fibrinous,  grayish-yellow  bands,  about  2  cm.  wide,  separating  the  com- 
pressed lung  lobules  and  the  lobules  of  the  adjoining  lung  sections.  The 
diseased  lobules  may  appear  singly  or  in  groups  with  varying  degrees  of 
inflammation,  while  fresh  inflammatory  lobules  will  be  seen  lying  beside 
older  forms.  Hyperemic,  edematous  and  bright  red  hepatized  lobules 
alternate  with  dark  red,  liver-like  lobules,  and  with  some  which  show  a 
grayish-yellow  to  grayish-brown  color.  The  latter  are  cloudy,  dry,  and 
point  to  an  early  stage  of  necrosis,  which  may  lead  to  sequestration  of 
smaller  or  larger  lung  areas.  As  a  result  of  the  condition  just  described, 
the  lung  presents  a  marbled  appearance  on  section  (Plate  II,  Fig.  i).  The 
above-mentioned  inflammation  of  the  pulmonary  pleura  extends  also  to 
the  other  pleural  surfaces,  in  advanced  cases  of  the  disease,  and  leads  to 
extensive  fibrin  deposits,  adhesions,  and  collections  of  exudate  within  the 
pleural  sac. 

Pleuro-pneumonia  is  recognized  quite  readily  when  the  above- 
mentioned  pathologic  lesions  are  present.  Only  in  quite  recently  formed 
cases  will  any  difficulty  of  diagnosis  be  met,  and  in  these  great  care  should 
be  exercised  on  account  of  the  grave  consequences  which  might  follow  an 
error  in  diagnosis. 

Pleuro-pneumonia  may  be  mistaken  for — 

1.  Foreign  Body   (Traumatic)  Pneumonia,  which  occurs  either  at 
one  particular  point  only  or  in  multiple  places,  and  may  also  present  a 
marbled  appearance.    Here  the  foreign  body  may  be  demonstrated,  how- 
ever ;  and  in  the  latter  case  the  widely  distributed  areas  will  not  suggest 
pleuro-pneumonia. 

2.  Genuine  Croupons  Pneumonia,  which  however  is  rare,  usually 
occurs  on  the  right  side  and  presents  uniform  processes  throughout. 

3.  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia  of  cattle  in  the  pectoral  form.    Here  the 
rapid   clinical    course    and   the    anatomically    uniform   acute   pulmonary 
inflammation  differentiates  it  from  pleuro-pneumonia.     Mice  and  rabbits 
die  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia  within  12  to  36  hours  after  inoculation. 

4.  Contagious  Broncho-Pneumonia  of  Calves,  which  occurs  as  a  lob- 
ular  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  lung  without  involving  the  interlobular 
tissue. 

5.  Pneumonomycosis,  which  is  readily  recognized  microscopically. 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.         311 

^v 

Judgment. — Inasmuch  as  the  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  pleuro- 
pneumonia  is  not  harmful  to  man  as  food,  it  may  be  declared  serviceable 
after  removal  of  the  diseased  portions,  provided  emaciation,  fever,  serosity 
and  other  conditions  of  the  meat  do  not  impair  its  value.  It  would  be 
necessary  to  condemn  the  carcass  only  exceptionally  in  cases  of  pro- 
nounced emaciation  with  serosity. 

[Contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cattle  does  not  exist  at  the  present 
time  in  the  United  States  and  as  the  regulations  governing  the  importa- 
tion of  cattle  prescribe  a  quarantine  of  60  days,  which  constitutes  the 
longest  period  for  the  incubation  of  this  contagion,  it  is  not  likely  that 
the  disease  will  reappear  in  this  country,  and  accordingly  it  is  not  of  any 
great  interest  in  meat  inspection.] 

Veterinary  Police  Regulations. — The  occurrence  of  the  disease  is  to 
be  immediately  reported  and  the  entire  carcass  confiscated.  Regulations 
require  that  the  lungs  be  buried  at  the  depth  of  one  meter,  and  that  the 
meat  be  not  removed  from  the  diseased  lot  until  it  has  been  cooled  thor- 
oughly, and  that  the  hides  should  also  be  retained  until  they  have  been 
completely  dried,  unless  they  are  turned  over  directly  to  a  tannery. 

5.     Blackleg 

Symptomatic  anthrax  or  blackleg  may  attack  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  very 
rarely  horses,  and  also  hogs,  but  this  infectious  disease  is  usually  restricted 
to  certain  localities.  Blackleg  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  gas- 
containing  swellings  in  the  subcutis  which  rapidly  spread. 

Pathogenesis. — Blackleg  is  caused  by  anaerobic  bacilli,  which  enter 
the  organism  through  abrasions  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

The  bacilli  measure  3  to  6  ^  in  length  and  0.5-0.7  ^  in  width,  are  motile  as 
long  as  they  have  not  developed  spores,  and  stain  readily;  they  do  not  stain  by 
Gram's  method,  however.  They  are  never  found  in  the  living  blood,  but  always 
in  the  subcutaneous  and  intermuscular  connective  tissue. 

After  the  bacilli  have  gained  entrance  into  the  body  there  develops 
crepitating,  rapidly  spreading  swellings  in  the  connective  tissue,  espe- 
cially at  the  neck,  shoulders,  beneath  the  breast,  thigh,  flanks,  and  more 
rarely  at  the  gums,  base  of  tongue  and  wall  of  the  pharynx,  accompanied 
by  severe  general  febrile  symptoms. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  symptoms  in  the  living  animal  corre- 
spond to  the  above  description.  Anatomically  the  subcutis  and  the  inter- 
muscular  connective  tissue  beneath  the  partly  necrosed  skin  appear  of  a 
yellowish  color,  Jbloody,  permeated  by  air  bubbles  and  of  an  offensive 
odor,  which  in  many  instances  is  similar  to  that  of  rancid  butter.  At 
these  points  the  musculature  is  a  muddy  brownish-red,  crepitating,  and 
very  juicy;  the  corresponding  lymphatic  glands  contain  a  bloody,  serous 


312  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

infiltration,  are  swollen,  and  contain  hemorrhagic  areas.  The  latter  are 
also  found  under  the  serosa.  Sero-sanguinolent  extravasations  or  exu- 
dates  in  the  body  cavities  and  occasionally  perirenal  and  mesenteric  bloody 
gelatinous  infiltrations  are  noted.  Degenerations  of  the  heart,  liver,  and 
kidneys  occur,  while  the  spleen  and  blood  remain  unchanged. 

Blackleg  is  easily  recognized  in  differential  diagnosis.  The  follow- 
ing diseases  must  be  considered : 

1.  Malignant  Edema,  which  need  rarely 
be    differentiated    clinically    from    blackleg. 
Anatomically  attention  should  be  directed  to 
the  foul  necrotic  odor    of    the    edematous 
swellings,  the  more  plump  morphology  of 
the  edema  bacillus  (page  292),  which  in  ad- 
dition possesses  spores  in  the  center  of  the 
organism  and  not  at  end,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  blackleg  bacillus.    The  latter  do  not  de- 
velop into  threads  in  the  cadaver,  like  edema 
bacilli. 

2.  Anthrax. — The  clinical  course  of  this 
Fig.     141.      Blackleg     bacilli       ..  ..„  .  .       ,  ,        r  ,  r 

with  spores.  Muscle  juice  disease  differs  considerably  from  that  of 
from  guinea  pig.  Cover-glass  blackleg,  and  in  the  slaughtered  animal  the 
preparation.  x  i.ooo  diame-  11111  1,  n 

ters.  After  Hutyra  and  Marek.     blood  and  sPleen  alterations,  as  well  as  the 

demonstration    of    the    bacillus  of  anthrax, 
serve  to  differentiate  it  from  blackleg. 

3.  Mechanical  Subcutaneous  Emphysema,  which  clinically  and  ana- 
tomatically  differs  entirely,  particularly  in  that  it  produces  no  necrosis  of 
the  skin. 

4.  Phlegmons  of  the  subcutis  as  a  result  of  pyogenous  wound  infec- 
tion   run  a  much  slower  course  than  blackleg  and  remain  localized. 

Judgment. — If  blackleg  is  found  on  ante-mortem  inspection,  or  if  it 
is  even  suspected,  slaughtering  of  the  animal  is  to  be  forbidden.  The 
meat  of  animals  suffering  from  blackleg,  although  not  injurious  to  man, 
must  be  condemned  on  account  of  the  marked  substantial  changes  therein, 
and  is  not  to  be  considered  fit  for  human  food. 

Veterinary  Police  Regulations. — In  this  respect  blackleg  is  to  be 
treated  just  like  anthrax  (see  page  281),  since  in  almost  all  states  com- 
pulsory notification  is  required  of  all  cases  that  may  arise. 

That  the  so-called  "parturient  blackleg "  is  not  true  blackleg,  but  a  form  of 
malignant  edema,  has  already  been  stated  on  page  292. 

Reindeer  pest  is  quite  similar  to  blackleg,  and  this  is  mentioned  on  account  ot 
the  fact  that  no  inconsiderable  quantities  of  reindeer  meat  are  imported  into  Ger- 
many. In  reindeer  pest  there  is  found  gas  formation  in  the  subcutis,  the  intramus- 
cular, subpletiral,  and  subperitoneal  tissues,  and  especially  abundant  beneath  the 
renal  capsule.  As  compared  with  blackleg  it  is  found  that  reindeer  pest  differs  also 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.         313 

in  the  presence  of  abundant  gas  formation  in  the  internal  organs.  The  cause  of 
reindeer  pest,  according  to  Lundgren  and  Bergman,  are  aerobic  rods,  thinner  than 
those  of  blackleg  or  anthrax  bacilli,  forming  spores  either  in  the  middle  or  at  the 
end,  and  staining  by  Gram's  method.  On  account  of  the  great  similarity  to  black- 
leg the  meat  of  animals  affected  with  reindeer  pest  is  to  be  judged  like  that  of 
blackleg. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  3,  carcasses 
of  animals  showing  lesions  of  blackleg  should  be  condemned.] 

6,    Bradsot 

The  disease  called  bradsot  (rapid  plague)  is  an  acute  infectious  dis- 
ease of  sheep,  which  originated  in  Iceland,  Norway,  Scotland,  and  occurs 
in  Germany,  according  to  Peters,  in  Mecklenburg,  Pommerania,  and 
recently  also  in  Middle  Germany  (Dammann  and  Oppermann,  R.  Froeh- 
ner).  It  occurs  almost  exclusively  during  the  winter  months,  particularly 
in  young  animals  and  in  its  nature  it  is  a  gastromycosis. 

Patliogenesis. — The  plague  is  produced  by  the  Bacillus  gastromycosis  ovis 
(Nielsen),  an  anaerobic,  slender,  motile  schizomycetes,  which  stains  by  Gram's 
method.  It  forms  central  or  polar  spores  and  is  frequently  found  arranged  end  to 
end. 

The  entrance  of  the  bacillus  into  the  digestive  tract  produces  a  hemorrhagic, 
abomaso-duodenal  inflammation  followed  by  general  infection  or  intoxication. 

Pathology. — On  account  of  the  frequent  peracute  course  of  the  dis- 
ease clinical  symptoms  (debility,  gnashing  of  teeth,  difficulties  of  respira- 
tion, coma,  tympanitis)  are  rarely  observed.  The  anatomical  changes 
have  been  described  in  the  pathogenesis.  In  addition  to  these,  there  occur 
occasionally  fibrinous  infiltrations  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tissues 
with  gas  formation  and  sero-sanguinolent  exudates  in  the  abdominal 
cavity.  Decomposition  sets  in  quickly. 

Judgment. — Although  injury  to  human  health  is  unlikely  as  the  result 
of  ingestion  of  meat  from  sheep  affected  with  "bradsot,"  as  has  been 
noted  by  certain  observers,  it  is  necessary  to  condemn  it  on  account  of  the 
severe  general  infection  or  intoxication  which  is  present. 

In  view  of  the  rapid  course  of  the  disease  it  is  not  likely  that  many 
sheep  affected  with  this  disease  will  be  brought  to  abattoirs  for  slaughter. 

[Bradsot  has  not  been  observed  in  the  United  States  and  therefore  it 
is  of  no  interest  In  meat  inspection.  The  occurrence  of  the  disease  would 
naturally  require  a  condemnation  of  the  affected  carcasses  on  account 
of  the  severe  infection  and  intoxication.] 


314  Chap.   VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

7,     Rinderpest   (Cattle   Plague) 

Cattle  plague  is  an  acute  infectious  disease  peculiar  to  cattle,  which 
may  be  transmitted  to  other  ruminants,  and  occurs  as  a  severe,  febrile 
general  infection  associated  with  inflammation  of  all  mucous  membranes, 
especially  those  of  the  digestive  tract.  The  plague  has  been  extinct  in 
Germany  for  years,  but  might  readily  be  carried  in  again  from  foreign 
countries.  [It  has  never  occurred  in  the  United  States.]  There  is  little 
known  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  infectious  material. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Clinical  symptoms:  Chills  (rigor),  high 
fever,  marked  depression,  constipation,  and  after  a  few  days  catarrh  of 
all  visible  mucous  membranes,  which  are  stained  scarlet  red,  either  dif- 
fusely or  in  spots  (petechia).  Difficulty  in  respiration  and  dysenteric 
feces  occasionally  mixed  with  blood,  occur  later.  The  visible  mucous 
membranes  show  erosions,  upon  which  grayish-white  crusts  appear,  and 
when  these  are  cast  off  ulcers  become  visible.  As  the  animals  rapidly 
emaciate,  the  secretions  of  the  mucous  membranes  become  discolored,  pus- 
like,  malodorous,  and  the  temperature  sinks  to  subnormal. 

The  anatomic  lesions,  according  to  Kitt.  are :  In  the  primary  stages 
hyperemia  and  catarrhal  condition  of  the  mucous  membranes,  then  croup- 
ous  diphtheritic  exudates  with  marked  hyperemia,  particularly  along  the 
entire  digestive  tract,  and  at  the  orifice  of  the  female  genitals ;  occa- 
sionally simultaneous  croupous  exudate  in  the  bronchi  occurs.  To  these 
are  added  ecchymosis  of  the  heart  and  exanthema  of  the  skin.  The  third 
stomach  is  frequently  filled  with  very  dry,  powdered  fodder ;  the  gall 
bladder  is  usually  full  and  distended ;  parenchyma  degenerated ;  muscula- 
ture wasted,  soft,  and  filled  with  small  blood  extravasations. 

Diagnosis. — In  order  to  recognize  cattle  plague,  which  is  exceedingly 
difficult  in  isolated  cases,  all  of  the  diagnostic  factors  will  have  to  be 
most  carefully  considered,  such  as  the  symptom-complex,  autopsy  findings. 
the  course  of  the  plague,  and  its  history. 

It  may  be  mistaken  for : 

1.  Malignant  Catarrhal  Fever,  in  which,  however,  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  head,  the  respiratory  apparatus,  and  the  eyes  are  particu- 
larly involved,  and  in  which  the  viscera  are  intact.     It  usually  occurs 
only  enzootically. 

2.  Dysentery  and  Mycotic  Enteritis. — Here  the  intestinal  symptoms 
predominate  and  the  other  pest  symptoms  are  absent. 

3.  Poisoning,  Especially  Mercurial  and  Caustic  Poisons. — Here  the 
contagion  is  absent  and  the  generalized  croupous-diphtheritic  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membranes  is  also  lacking. 

4.  Infectious  Hemoglobinuria  of  Cattle  (page  256),  when  on  post- 
mortem examination  of  cattle  which  have  died  from  this  disease    ulcers 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.         315 

and  lamellar  deposits  are  found  in  the  abomasum  and  duodenum  (Hutyra- 
Marek).  There  is,  however,  an  absence  of  the  changes  in  the  oral  mucous 
membranes,  the  air  passages  and  genitals,  while  the  hemoglobin-containing 
urine  will  attract  attention. 

Judgment. — The  killing  or  slaughtering  of  animals  affected  with  cat- 
tle plague  or  those  suspected  of  having  this  disease  is  to  be  prohibited. 
Although  the  meat  of  cattle-plague  animals  has  been  proven  to  be  harm- 
less to  man  when  used  for  food,  it  is  nevertheless  to  be  destroyed  or 
declared  unfit  for  food  on  account  of  the  great  danger  in  spreading  the 
disease,  and  is  to  be  buried  in  accordance  with  regulations  of  the  rinder- 
pest law  of  April  7,  1869. 

[Inasmuch  as  the  disease  does  not  exist  in  the  United  States  there  are 
no  provisions  made  in  the  regulations  for  the  judgment  of  animals  affected 
with  rinderpest ;  it  is,  however,  self-evident  that  the  occurrence  of  the  dis- 
ease would  require  condemnation  of  the  affected  carcasses  with  strict 
veterinary  police  regulations  to  prevent  its  spread.] 

8,     Vesicular  Exanthema  of  Horses  and  Cattle 

This  contagious  disease  of  the  genital  organs,  which  occasionally  produces  a 
constitutional  disturbance,  is  mentioned  here  only  on  account  of  its  veterinary 
police  (sanitary)  importance. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Marked  redness  and  swelling  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  vagina,  prepuce,  and  penis,  itching,  slight  discharge  and  strangury,  develop- 
ment of  delicately  covered  vesicles  of  sizes  from  a  millet  seed  to  a  dime,  which  burst 
and  change  into  superficial  ulcers.  They  form  brownish  crusts  and  heal,  leaving 
white  cicatrices.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  observe  the  symptoms  in  bulls,  since 
only  fine  erosions  and  small  vesicles  appear  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  pre- 
puce. In  severe  cases  there  occur  confluent,  deeper  penetrating  ulcers,  with  suppura- 
tion and  foul  pus,  more  marked  discharge,  and  swelling  of  the  surrounding  parts 
as  well  as  grave  febrile  general  disturbance. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  afflicted  with  vesicular  exanthema,  is 
generally  fit  for  food;  in  severe  cases,  which,  however,  are  rarely  brought  for 
slaughter,  the  grade  of  the  disease  and  complications  present  decide  whether  the 
meat  is  to  be  declared  of  impaired  value,  or  to  be  entirely  condemned. 

The  veterinary  police  regulations  require  report  of  such  cases  and  retention  of 
the  diseased  portions  for  examination  by  the  veterinarian  in  charge. 

[In  the  meat  inspection  of  the  United  States  carcasses  of  animals 
affected  with  vesicular  exanthema  may  be  passed  for  food  provided  the 
disease  has  not  caused  general  systemic  disturbances  and  the  lesions  are 
confined  to  the  genital  organs,  which  should  be  condemned.] 

For  contagious  vaginal  catarrh,  see  page  212. 


316  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

9,     Hemorrhagic  Septicemia  (Game  and  Cattle  Plague) 

Game  (Mid  Cattle  Plague. — This  disease,  belonging  to  the  group  of 
septicemia  hemorrhagica  (Hueppe),  occasionally  occurs  epizootically  in 
cattle,  deer,  and  black  game,  and  in  isolated  cases  may  be  transmitted  to 
the  horse,  goat  and  hog.  It  appears  in  pectoral  and  exanthematous  form, 
though  both  may  occur  together. 

Patho genesis. — The  cause  of  this  disease  (Bacillus  [bipolaris]  bovi- 
septicus),  which  simulates  that  of  swine  plague,  may  gain  entrance  to 
the  organism  in  various  ways,  corresponding  to  the  above-mentioned 
forms  of  the  disease.  According  to  Dammann  and  Oppermann  a  species 
of  mosquito  (Simulia  ornata)  is  the  intermediate  host  in  the  transmission 
of  this  affection.  The  bacilli  produce  local  inflammations,  and  passing  into 
the  blood  create  various  changes  resembling  the  course  of  sepsis. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  cattle  the  exanthematous  form  is  the 
most  frequent.  The  clinical  symptoms  are  the  rapidly  arising  warm 
swellings  of  the  subcutis  of  the  head  and  neck,  as  well  as  the  oral  cavity, 
high  fever,  and  difficult  respiration.  Anatomically  there  are  sanguino- 
gelatinous  exudations  at  the  above-mentioned  areas,  marked  swelling  of 
the  retropharyngeal  and  cervical  lymphatic  glands,  cloudy  swelling  of  the 
large  viscera  and  hemorrhages  into  most  organs. 

The  pectoral  form,  which  predominates  in  game,  runs  the  clinical  and 
anatomical  course  of  severe  croupous  pleuro-pneumonia  with  marked  dysp- 
nea. The  above-mentioned  hemorrhages  are  never  absent. 

In  both  forms  there  also  exists  marked  hemorrhagic  enteritis,  which 
is  noticeable  clinically  by  bloody  discharges  in  addition  to  the  severe  gen- 
eral constitutional  condition.  These  intestinal  forms  or  symptoms  were 
previously  described  as  a  special  intestinal  form  of  game  and  cattle  plague. 

The  positive  recognition  of  the  plague  intra  vitam  is  oftentimes 
impossible,  though  per  post  mortem  it  is  quite  easy.  The  presence  of  the 
bacteria,  inoculation  of  rabbits  and  mice,  and  feeding  infectious  material 
to  birds,  causing  death  to  all  within  12  to  36  hours,  confirm  the  diagnosis. 

It  might  be  mistaken  for: 

1.  Anthrax;  in  hemorrhagic  septicemia  the  marked  splenic  changes 
are  absent,  and  the  blood  alterations  and  anthrax  bacilli  as  well. 

2.  Pleuro-pneumonia;  from  this  the  uniform  age  and  synchronicity 
of   all   the   diffuse   pneumonic   areas    in   game   and   cattle   plague   differ 
considerably. 

3.  Malignant   Edema,  Blackleg,    and    Cattle    Pest     (Rinderpest}, 
whose  differential  diagnostic  features  have  already  been  cited. 

Judgment. — The  slaughter  of  animals  affected  with  hemorrhagic  sep- 
ticemia is  prohibited,  and  they  are  to  be  treated  like  those  affected  with 


Infectious  Diseases  Characteristic  of  Food  Animals,  etc.          317 

anthrax.  In  some  states  it  is  required  to  report  the  occurrence  of  this 
disease. 

In  view  of  the  danger  in  spreading  contagion,  the  entire  carcass  is 
to  be  condemned,  although  the  ingestion  of  the  meat  by  man  is  not  dan- 
gerous to  health. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  4,  carcasses 
of  animals  affected  with  hemorrhagic  septicemia  shall  be  condemned.] 


10,     Malignant  Catarrhal  Fever  of  Cattle 

This  miasmatic  infectious  disease  peculiar  to  cattle  is  characterized 
by  marked  inflammation  of  all  mucous  membranes  of  the  head  (inflamma- 
tory disease  of  the  head)  and  eyes,  accompanied  by  severe  constitutional 
and  cerebral  disturbances. 

Pathogenesis. — The  st;ll  unknown  infectious  material,  aside  from  the 
above-mentioned  symptoms,  causes  sometimes  more  extensive  affection  of 
the  respiratory  apparatus  as  well  as  croupous-diphtheritic  inflammation  of 
the  digestive  tract,  and  occasionally  vesicular  or  nodule-like  skin  exanthe- 
mata (skin  eruptions),  while  nephritis,  cystitis,  and  colpitis  may  also 
occur. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  most  prominent  clinical  symptoms  are 
rapidly  increasing  fever,  marked  fatigue,  and  impairment  of  sensation, 
muscular  tremors,  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head, 
particularly  those  of  the  eyes,  difficulty  of  respiration,  diarrhea,  which  may 
be  mixed  with  blood,  and  rapid  emaciation.  Predominating  anatomical 
lesions  are  catarrhal  or  hemorrhagic,  later  croupous  and  diphtheritic 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  entire  respiratory  appara- 
tus and  occasionally  also  involving  the  digestive  apparatus ;  great  conges- 
tion of  blood  in  the  cranial  cavity ;  marked  swelling  of  the  lids,  conjunc- 
tivitis, keratitis  and  even  iritis ;  enlargement  of  the  spleen  and  cloudy 
swelling  of  the  liver  and  kidneys  which  are  usually  not  marked  ;  and  at 
times  nephritis,  cystitis,  colpitis,  and  the  above-mentioned  skin  changes 
may  occur. 

The  recognition  of  the  well-developed  cases  of  malignant  catarrhal 
fever  is  not  difficult.  For  differential  diagnosis  should  be  considered  : 

i.  Rinderpest,  in  which  the  affection  of  the  eyes  is  conspicuously 
absent,  and  in  which  the  rapid  course  is  characterized  by  the  predominat- 
ing gastric  symptoms,  while  in  catarrhal  fever  the  affection  of  the  respira 
tory  apparatus  is  most  marked.  In  catarrhal  fever  the  organs  are  only 
slightly  involved,  whereas  in  animals  suffering  with  rinderpest  they  are 
greatly  degenerated. 


318  Chap.   VII.     Abnormal   Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

2.  Mycotic  enteritis,  when  the  intestinal  infection  predominates. 
Here  are  noted,  however,  the  absence  of  marked  depression  symptoms  and 
changes  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head. 

Judgment. — The  meat  is  not  injurious  to  man  as  food.  It  may,  how- 
ever, have  to  be  condemned  in  advanced  cases  on  account  of  the  occur- 
ring emaciation  and  the  objective  changes  in  the  meat  (increased  blood 
contents,  etc.).  In  any  case,  the  meat  is  always  to  be  considered  impaired 
in  nutritive  value. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  9,  carcasses 
of  animals  affected  with  malignant  epizootic  catarrh  and  showing  gener- 
alized inflammation  of  mucous  membranes  shall  be  condemned.] 

11.     Necrotic  Stomatitis  (Diphtheria)  of  Calves 

Diphtheria  of  Calves. — Diphtheria  of  calves  is  not  related  to  diph- 
theria in  man,  and  occurs  comparatively  infrequently  as  an  infectious  dis- 
ease with  rapid  course  of  development,  characterized  by  the  appearance 
of  croupous-diphtheritic  changes  in  the  mucous  membranes. 

Patho  gene  sis. — The  exciting  cause  of  the  disease  is  the  necrosis  bacillus  (Bang), 
which  appears  in  motile  rods  (1.8-2.4  ^  long,  and  0.6  ^  wide),  and  also  in  threads. 
Without  doubt  the  bacillus  gains  admission  through  wounds  or  abrasions,  where- 
upon it  effects  its  further  action  by  way  of  the  blood.  Sepsis  may  be  associated 
with  the  course  of  this  affection. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  are  similar  to  those 
of  foot  and  mouth  disease,  but  in  addition,  cough,  difficulty  of  respira- 
tion, and  diarrhea  occur.  Pathologically  there  are  noted  in  advanced 
cases  croupous-diphtheritic  ulcers  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth, 
pharynx,  larynx,  trachea,  stomach,  and  intestinal  canal,  pneumonic  areas, 
and  also  cloudy  swelling  of  the  internal  organs. 

Recognition  of  necrotic  stomatitis  of  calves  is  based  on  the  above- 
mentioned  findings,  which  are  not  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  anything  else, 
unless  it  be  foot  and  mouth  disease. 

Judgment. — If  the  animals  are  slaughtered  in  the  early  stages,  the 
meat  may  be  considered  as  of  impaired  value,  later  it  becomes  unfit  for 
food  on  account  of  rapid  emaciation  and  general  constitutional  symptoms, 
which  produce  such  changes  as  to  unfit  it  for  food.  The  latter  is  also 
the  case  when  sepsis  has  occurred. 

The  passing  of  a  carcass  for  food  after  condemning  the  diseased  parts 
is  possible  in  Germany,  as  the  animals  are  not  usually  slaughtered  until 
general  constitutional  symptoms  have  set  in. 

[In  accordance  with  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States,  carcasses  of 
animals  with  necrotic  stomatitis  may  be  passed  if  the  lesions  are  onlv 


Infectious   Diseases   Characteristic  of   Food   Animals,   etc.       319 

local  in  character ;  if  there  is  indication  of  toxemia,  associated  with  ema- 
ciation, the  carcasses  should  be  condemned.] 

12,     Diarrhea  or  Dysentery  of  Calves 

White  scours  of  calves  is  an  infectious  intestinal  inflammation,  which 
may  occur  also  in  other  sucklings  and  sometimes  appears  enzootically. 

Pathogenesis. — The  exciting  agents  of  dysentery,  according  to  Jensen,  Poels,  and 
Joest,  are  bacteria  belonging  to  the  colon  group,  which  are  facultatively  pathogenic 
and  enter  the  blood  from  the  intestinal  tract,  producing  general  infection  with  spe- 
cial localization  in  the  intestinal  canal.1 

There  is  nothing  particular  to  be  said  about  the  clinical  symptoms. 
Pathologically  there  is  emaciation,  anemia,  reddish  blurred  injection  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum  and  the  entire  intestinal  tube,  swell- 
ing of  the  mesenteric  glands,  and  subserous  hemorrhages,  the  musculature 
being  flabby,  lusterless,  and  of  a  muddy  red  color. 

With  the  aid  of  a  microscope  recognition  of  this  disease  is  readily 
accomplished. 

It  is  apt  to  be  mistaken  for — 

1.  Acute  Gastric  and  Intestinal  Catarrhs,  in  which,  however,  the 
course  is  milder,  and  in  which  the  signs  of  blood  infection  are  lacking. 

2.  Diarrhea  of  Septicemia  and  Pyemia,  whose  other  symptoms,  how- 
ever, are  usually  easy  of  recognition. 

Judgment. — When  the  calves  are  slaughtered  early  in  the  disease 
their  meat  may  be  permissible  as  food,  though  being  rated  as  of  impaired 
value.  If  a  general  infection  had  already  set  in,  the  meat  will  have  to  be 
declared  unfit  for  food,  on  account  of  the  possibility  of  its  being  danger- 
ous to  health.  Inasmuch  as  the  bacteria  are  found  in  the  blood  and 
rapidly  multiply  in  the  carcass  (Ostertag),  caution  is  imperative  from  the 
well-known  fact  that  the  varieties  of  the  coli  bacteria  may  assume  marked 
pathogenic  properties. 

[Inasmuch  as  white  scour  in  calves  represents  a  general  infection  and 
since  the  disease  is  usually  associated  with  general  debility  and  emacia- 
tion, therefore  carcasses  thus  affected  are  condemned  in  the  Federal 
inspection  service.] 

13,     Distemper  and  Influenza  of  Horses 

Diseases  of  horses  coming  under  this  classification  do  not  require  special  notice 
here  since  they  do  not  necessitate  slaughter  of  the  animals,  because  the  diseases  in 
question  either  run  a  mild  course  or  cause  death  in  severe  cases,  not  bringing  into 
question  the  possibility  of  emergency  slaughter.  If  such  an  exceptional  case  should 
arise,  however,  judgment  of  the  meat  will  not  be  difficult,  when  it  is  borne  in  mind 
that  septic  or  pyemic  infections  may  complicate  the  course  of  distemper,  influenza, 
and  pneumonia  of  horses. 

f1  Nocard,  Mettam,  etc.,  consider  the  cause  of  this  disease  to  be  a  pasteurellose.] 


320  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

7.     Intoxications  and  Autointoxications  in  Slaughtered  Animals 

A,     Poisoning 

Poisoning  of  slaughtered  animals  is  only  of  importance  from  the  point 
of  hygiene  of  the  meat  when  changes  have  occurred  in  the  flesh  as  a 
result  of  the  toxic  action  of  the  poison,  or  when  the  meat  itself  has  been 
poisoned. 

As  a  rule,  poisoning  in  slaughtered  animals  is  rare.  Still  the  own- 
ers of  the  animals  frequently  consider  some  diseases  as  such,  since  the 
layman  is  inclined  to  view  all  suddenly  occurring  affections  as  due  to  this 
cause.  Poisoning  is  usually  accidental,  the  poisonous  substances  being 
ingested  with  the  food  or  while  searching  for  food ;  or  they  may  be  the 
result  of  improper  administration  of  drugs. 

Regarding  the  clinical  symptoms  and  pathology  of  various  poisonings 
in  living  animals,  text-books  on  toxicology  must  be  referred  to  as  only 
general  remarks  may  be  indulged  in  here  with  regard  to  the  findings  in 
the  slaughtered  animals.  The  following  groups  of  intoxication  are  to  be 
differentiated : 

1.  Poisons  which  exert  a  pronounced  local  effect    and  those  which 
primarily  affect  the  parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact   are  relatively 
easy  of  recognition.   To  these  belong  among  others,  caustic,  acids,  alkalies 
and  salts ;  phosphorus,  arsenic,  catharadin,  and  also  insect    and    snake 
venom.     Marked  inflammation,  swelling,  hemorrhages,  and  eschars,  espe- 
cially in  the  digestive  tract  and  on  the  skin,  occur  at  the  points  of  contact 
with  the  poison,  but  the  main  effect  of  the  poison  is  usually  secondary  and 
is  to  be  sought  in  disturbances  of  function  of  the  more  important  body 
organs. 

2.  Some  of  the  blood  poisons  combine  with  the  hemoglobin  of  the 
red  cells  (carbon  monoxid,  hydrocyanic  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen)  and 
reduce  their  functional  power  as  carriers  of  oxygen  ;  while  others  (nitrites 
iodin,  potassium  chlorate,  pyrogallol,  picric  acid   anilin,  carbon  bisulphide 
and  others)    destroy  the  red  cells  and  form  methemoglobin.     As  a  result 
the  blood  will  appear  light-violet  to  cherry-red  and  even  chocolate-brown 
in  color.    These  changes  may  not  be  marked,  however,  if  the  animals  have 
been  slaughtered  early  on  account  of  the  serious  effect  of  the  poison  on 
the  central  nervous  system.    Urine  of  a  red  to  dark-red  color  will  doubt- 
lessly be  present  in  severe  intoxication  by  poisons  of  the  latter  group. 

3.  In  nerve  and  heart  toxins,  anatomical  changes  as  a  rule  are  not 
demonstrable,  in  spite  of  extreme  nervous  irritation  or  paralysis. 

For  the  purpose  of  meat  inspection,  another  group  might  be  added 
to  the  three  foregoing — 


Poisoning  321 

4.  Those  which  develop  marked  odor  and  thereby  reveal  their 
presence  in  the  slaughtered  animal,  such  as  chloroform,  ether,  alcohol, 
petroleum,  chloral  hydrate,  camphor,  ethereal  oils,  phosphorus,  carbolic 
acid,  etc.  The  effect  of  these  drugs  would  be  similar  to  one  of  the  three 
classes  already  mentioned. 

As  recognition  of  poisonings  and  their  essential  causes  may  be  quite 
difficult  in  certain  instances,  it  will  be  possible  to  establish  only  a  probable 
diagnosis  in  many  cases,  unless  an  exact  chemico-analytical  examination  is 
made.  The  latter  would  rarely  be  practicable  for  purposes  of  meat  inspec- 
tion on  account  of  the  amount  of  time  required,  and  may  then  fail  in  some 
cases. 

The  judgment  of  this  class  of  food  animals  is  dependent  upon  the 
separation  of  the  meat  proper  in  its  narrow  sense  from  the  viscera.  Of  the 
latter,  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canal  will  always  have  to  be  condemned 
as  dangerous  to  health.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  other  viscera  are 
harmless  in  a  number  of  instances,  while  in  doubtful  cases,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  poison  and  the  probable  course  it 
pursues  in  the  organism.  In  one  case  the  udder  of  a  cow  was  found  dan- 
gerous to  health,  the  animal  having  been  fed  large  quantities  of  veratrum 
album.  In  subcutaneous  administration  of  poisonous  substances,  the  site 
of  injection  and  its  vicinity,  as  well  as  the  associated  lymphatic  apparatus 
up  to  and  including  the  nearest  lymph  glands,  are  to  be  removed. 

Careful  observations  by  Frohner  and  Knudsen  lead  to  the  assumption 
that  meat  in  "medicinal  treatment  of  an  animal  with  any  drug,  cannot 
result  in  becoming  dangerous  to  health,"  and  what  holds  good  for  the 
medicaments  of  powerful  action  as  the  result  of  experimental  and  obser- 
vational research  applies  also  to  other  poisonous  drugs. 

\Yhether  the  meat  is  of  reduced  or  impaired  value  in  case  of  an  ani- 
mal slaughtered  on  account  of  having  been  poisoned,  depends  on  the  asso- 
ciated conditions  or  circumstances  and  the  nutrition  of  the  animal.  We 
may.  of  course,  preclude  here  that  consumers  will  be  prejudiced  against 
meat  of  this  class.  The  value  of  it  is  below  par  as  soon  as  odorific  poisons 
have  given  the  meat  an  abnormal  odor.  (See  boiling  test,  page  137.) 

Meat  of  poisoned  animals  is  always  to  be  considered  unfit  for  human 
food  whenever  a  nauseating  or  loathsome  odor  is  present,  when  septic 
infections  are  present,  or  when  marked  changes  in  the  meat  (emaciation, 
serosity)  occur  associated  with  poisoning. 

[The  judgment  of  this  class  of  food  animals  in  the  United  States  is 
carried  out  on  the  same  principles  as  those  followed  in  Germany.]* 

22 


322  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


B,     Autointoxications 

Autointoxication  designates  the  transition  of  toxic  substances  devel- 
oped in  the  intestines  (enterogen),  or  in  the  tissue  (histogen),  into  the 
fluids  of  the  body.  The  transition  of  such  poisons  is  either  caused  by  the 
presence  of  exciting  or  toxic  metabolic  products,  by  a  physiological 
increase  in  their  production,  or  as  a  result  of  their  incomplete  destruction. 
In  the  same  manner  the  blood  may  also  receive  toxic  substances  in  dis- 
turbances or  suspension  of  the  functions  of  certain  organs. 

1.     Cholemia 

The  presence  of  the  constituents  of  bile  in  the  blood  is,  strictly  taken, 
•only  a  symptomatic  condition,  a  well-marked  manifestation  of  which  con- 
sists in  a  yellow  coloration  of  the  tissues,  called  jaundice  (icterus).  The 
•etiological  classification  of  cholemic  affections  in  catarrhal,  hepatoxemic, 
and  hematogenic  icterus,  is  also  to  be  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
meat  inspection. 

Of  the  clinical  symptoms,  the  yellow  coloration  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes is  of  importance  in  meat  inspection,  and  also  the  condition, 
whether  a  considerable  general  affection  is  absent  or  present.  In  the 
latter  case,  severe  organic  changes  are  present,  or  an  intoxication  (lupi- 
nosis,  phosphorous  poisoning),  or  an  infectious  disease  (sepsis,  anthrax, 
swine  plague,  influenza),  with  its  characteristic  symptoms,  is  found 
to  be  the  original  cause.  On  the  latter  depends  also  the  anatomical 
lesions  which  are  thus  associated  with  yellow  discoloration  of  the  tissues. 
This  is  not  only  noticeable  to  a  high  degree  on  the  serous  membranes,  but 
also  on  all  tissues  and  organs  and  shows  also  occasionally  distinct 
greenish-color  tints.  In  animals  with  normal  white  fat  tissue  the  slight- 
est degree  of  yellow  coloration  is  also  recognizable  on  the  fat,  but  this 
must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  yellow  coloration  resulting  from  feeding, 
and  the  old  age  discoloration  of  the  fat  in  cattle. 

The  judging  of  icteric  animals  should  be  carried  out  only  in  daylight. 
It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  slight  yellow  colorations  may  almost 
entirely  disappear  in  a  certain  time  after  death,  as  a  result  of  the  reductive 
action  of  the  body  cells ;  therefore,  slightly  icteric  carcasses  are  judged 
only  after  24  hours.  In  severe  forms  of  icterus  with  parenchymatous 
degeneration  as  a  result  of  infections  or  intoxications,  this  is  not  neces- 
sary. In  the  latter  case,  the  meat  is  spoiled  in  a  high  degree,  and  is  unfit 
for  human  consumption.  Otherwise,  in  cases  which  are  pronounced 
icteric,  the  meat  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality,  while  it  may  be 
passed  if  in  24  hours  after  slaughter  the  yellow  coloration  disappears, 
or  if  only  a  nominal  discoloration  remains. 


Autointoxications  323 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  19, 
carcasses  affected  with  icterus  and  showing  the  characteristic  yellow  or 
greenish-yellow  discoloration  after  proper  cooling  should  be  condemned, 
while  those  which  lose  the  discoloration  after  cooling  may  be  passed  for 
food.] 

2,     Uremia 

For  the  nature  of  uremia,  the  same  statement  applies  which  was  men- 
tioned above  for  cholemia.  The  occurrence  of  uremia  in  food  animals  is 
limited,  with  a  few  exceptions,  to  male  individuals,  in  which  the  anatomical 
peculiarities  of  the  urethra  (S-shaped  bending  in  ruminants  and  in  hogs) 
favor  this  occurrence.  The  latter  is  principally  the  seat  of  obstructions 
with  concrements,  which  as  a  result  produce  gangrene  of  the  urethra  or 
a  rupture  of  the  bladder.  The  absorption  of  the  constituents  of  urine 
effused  into  the  periurethral  connective  tissue,  or  into  the  peritoneal  cav- 
ity, results  in  a  uremic  poisoning  of  the  blood.  Very  rarely  uremia  may 
also  develop  as  a  result  of  an  insufficient  excretion  of  the  constituents  of 
urine,  as  for  instance,  in  double-sided  pyelonephritis  of  cattle,  or  in  the 
presence  of  double-sided  cystic  kidneys. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  living  animals  show  the  known  symp- 
toms of  retentio  urince,  which  it  is  true,  in  indolent  steers,  is  not  very  pro- 
nounced. After  the  resorption  of  urine,  febrile  symptoms,  accelerated 
pulse,  pronounced  psychic  depression,  strong  urinary  odor  of  the  expira- 
tions, uremic  convulsions,  and  under  certain  conditions  even  subnormal 
temperatures  are  manifested.  On  the  slaughtered  animal  and  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  carcass  pronounced  urinary  odor  may  be  noted, 
which,  however,  is  absent  in  fresh  cases.  Corresponding  with  the  cause 
there  may  be  found  an  infiltration  of  urine  in  the  scrotal  region,  rupture 
of  the  bladder  with  peritonitis,  or  severe  kidney  changes.  The  muscles 
have  a  distinct  uriniferous  odor,  which  gradually  becomes  less  marked 
with  the  increased  cooling  of  the  carcass;  intermuscular  hemorrhages 
may  also  be  present. 

Therefore  in  the  examination  of  a  cooled  carcass  in  which  uremia  is 
suspected,  the  meat  should  be  always  subjected  to  a  boiling  test,  during 
which  the  possible  presence  of  a  urinary  odor  again  becomes  recognizable. 

The  judgment  should  be  made  only  after  the  cooling  of  the  meat, 
and  the  employment  of  the  boiling  test.  If  during  the  latter  only  a  very 
slight  uriniferous  odor  is  perceptible  which  occurs  in  fresh  cases  exclu- 
sively, the  meat  may  then  be  passed  for  human  consumption,  but  should 
be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  In  advanced  uremia  the  odor  of  the 
meat  becomes  sa  intensely  uremic  on  account  of  its  highly  spoiled  condi- 
tion that  it  must  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food. 

[B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  20,  provides  that  car- 
casses which  give  off  the  odor  of  urine  should  be  condemned.] 


324  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 


3.     Hemoglobinemia  of  Horses 

The  hemoglobinemia  of  horses,  which  is  also  designated  as  hemo- 
globinuria,  azoturia,  and  lumbago,  is  usually  a  rheumatic  affection.  It 
probably  results  from  an  autointoxication  o{  myogenic  origin,  in  which 
the  muscular  coloring  matter  which  is  identical  with  hemoglobin  is  pres- 
ent, as  well  as  other  transformed  products  of  the  existing  parenchymatous 
myositis,  which  penetrate  into  the  blood  and  act  destructively  upon  the 
erythrocytes. 

Of  the  clinical  symptoms,  there  are  especially  conspicuous  the  well- 
known  dark  red  to  dirty  brown  and  black  coloration  of  the  urine,  and  the 
paralysis-like  weakness  of  the  hind-quarters.  Mucous  membranes  are 
highly  congested  and  show  a  dirty  discoloration ;  the  temperature,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  usually  only  very  slightly  elevated.  In  the  slaughtered  ani- 
mal the  blood  is  of  a  varnish  color  and  tar-like ;  edematous  swelling  and 
pale  coloring  of  the  psoas  and  croup  muscles,  as  well  as  of  the  quadriceps 
femoris,  may  be  noted  as  a  result  of  parenchymatous  myositis.  Second- 
ary lesions  are:  Swelling  of  the  liver  and  spleen,  infiltration  of  the  red 
bone-marrow,  parenchymatous  nephritis,  and  hemorrhages  in  various 
organs.  In  cases  of  longer  duration,  septic  lesions  may  be  present  as  a 
result  of  decubitus  gangrene. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  horses  slaughtered  in  the  early  stages  of 
this  disease  may  be  passed  for  food.  Later,  insufficient  bleeding  and 
muscular  changes  render  the  meat  unfit  for  human  consumption  on 
account  of  the  highly  spoiled  condition. 

[Hemoglobinemia  of  horses  is  at  the  present  time  of  no  interest  to 
meat  inspection  in  the  United  States,  inasmuch  as  horses  are  not  included 
as  food  animals  in  this  country.] 

According  to  Schlegel's  investigation,  another  more  rarely  occurring  infectious 
hemoglobinemia  of  horses  has  to  be  mentioned,  which  he  designates  as  an  infectious 
spinal  meningitis,  caused  by  the  streptococcus  melanogenes.  The  later  stages  of 
this  infectious  hemoglobinemia  pass  off  under  the  semblance  of  septicemia. 


4.     Parturient  Paresis 

Parturient  paresis  (parturition  fever,  calf- fever,  milk- fever)  is 
observed  principally  in  cows ;  more  rarely  in  goats  and  hogs.  While  this 
affection  until  recently  was  considered  as  an  autointoxication  in  which 
the  udder  was  supposed  to  be  the  place  for  the  development  of  toxins 
(Sonnenberg),  recent  publications  (Meier,  Gebauer,  and  others),  and 


Parturient  Paresis,  etc.  325 

especially  the  beneficial  results  following  the  air  treatment  of  this  disease, 
make  it  apparent  that  the  affection  is  the  result  of  a  circulatory  disturb- 
ance in  the  brain.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  both  causes  must  be  given 
consideration.  The  disease  appears,  as  a  rule,  in  12  to  48  hours  after 
parturition ;  it  however  has  been  observed  before  that  time. 

The  conspicuous  symptoms  in  the  living  animal  are  characteristic 
manifestations  of  depression  and  paralysis.  If  these  have  advanced  to  a 
certain  degree  the  animals  will  lie  with  their  legs  half  way  bent  or 
stretched  out,  and  their  heads  turned  to  the  side,  resting  on  the  thorax. 
At  the  same  time  there  are  present  somnolence,  ptosis,  absence  of  skin 
reflexes,  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  tongue  and  pharynx,  and  saliva- 
tion. As  a  result  of  the  paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  stomach,  intes- 
tines and  bladder,  flatulency  and  retention  of  urine  develop.  The  body 
temperature  is  unevenly  distributed;  the  internal  temperature  is  slightly 
elevated  only  in  the  beginning  of  the  disease;  later  it  is  normal  or 
subnormal. 

On  the  slaughtered  animal  the  findings  are  principally  negative.  The 
uterus  is  usually  strongly  contracted  and  without  abnormal  contents;  the 
abdominal  viscera  are  frequently  highly  injected,  while  insufficient  bleed- 
ing will  be  noted  in  delayed  slaughter. 

The  recognition  of  this  disease  in  the  living  animal  is  very  easy. 
Nevertheless  a  careful  examination  is  necessary  in  order  to  determine  the 
possible  presence  of  other  puerperal  affections  (sepsis),  special  attention 
being  paid  to  the  absence  of  high  fever  and  to  whether  there  is  tenesmus 
or  indications  that  the  animal  was  given  cold  water  enemas.  On  the 
slaughtered  animal  the  diagnosis  has  to  be  made  by  the  exclusion  of 
other  diseases  and  by  giving  consideration  to  the  history  of  the  case.  First 
of  all,  the  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  absence  of  inflammatory 
changes  in  the  uterus  and  the  genital  organs,  as  well  as  to  the  character- 
istic lesions  of  sepsis. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  which  are  slaughtered  on  account 
of  parturient  paresis  is  not  injurious  to  human  health.  In  early  slaughter 
and  in  well-nourished  animals  there  is  sometimes  no  ground  for  con- 
demnation. Delayed  slaughter  renders  the  carcass  inferior  in  quality  on 
account  of  the  greater  blood  content  of  the  meat.  The  carcass  will  have 
to  be  condemned  when  complications  with  sepsis  are  present,  or  when 
marked  substantial  changes  of  the  meat  or  otherwise  severe  internal 
affections  are  present.  If  an  infusion  of  iodide  of  potassium  or  iodide  of 
sodium  were  made  into  the  udder,  which  may  transmit  a  peculiar  stale 
odor  and  taste  to  the  meat  (boiling  test!),  it  should  be  always  condemned 
on  account  of  its  repulsiveness.  Owing  tb  the  repeated  administration  of 


326  Chap.  VII.     Abnormal  Conditions  and  Diseases,  etc. 

strong-smelling  remedies  (camphor,  turpentine,  ether,  and  others),  their 
absorption  by  the  meat  should  be  thought  of  and  the  boiling  test  applied 
(see  page  137). 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  section  25, 
carcasses  of  animals  showing  symptoms  of  milk-fever  at  the  time  of 
slaughter  should  be  condemned,  which  action  is  based  not  only  on  the 
changes  of  the  meat  relative  to  its  consistence,  color,  etc.,  but  also  on  the 
present  view  of  the  pathology  of  the  disease,  which  suggests  an  auto- 
intoxication.] 


VIIL   Post-mortem  Changes  of  Meat 

The  first  changes  of  the  animal  tissues  after  death  are  of  a  physico- 
chemical  nature,  such  as  appearance  of  coagulation,  changes  of  color, 
changes  in  reaction.  The  appearance  of  coagulation  is  most  distinctly 
marked  in  the  stiffening  of  fat  in  fat  cells,  and  in  the  coagulation  of  myo- 
sin  in  striated  muscles.  The  latter  is  probably  brought  on  by  acid  forma- 
tion in  the  muscles,  and  rigor  mortis  is  the  result.  The  muscles  thus 
obtain  an  acid  reaction,  a  condition  which  is  designated  as  a  simple  sour- 
ing of  meat  by  W.  Eber,  who  was  the  first  to  bring  under  a  certain  sys- 
tem the  decomposition  processes  of  meat.  To  this  is  added  the  sour  fer- 
mentation which  may  occur  in  two  forms : 

1.    Fermentation  Processes  in  Meat 

A.  Simple  sour  fermentation  begins  with  rigor  mortis  and  produces 
the  so-called  "ripening"  of  the  meat.     The  latter  becomes  more  tender, 
appears  more  juicy  and  gradually  loses  the  quality  to  take  up  a  bright 
scarlet-red  color  on  the  cut  surface.    The  cut  surface  then  becomes  light- 
brown  to  yellow.     The  odor  of  the  ripening  meat  is  sourish — aromatic. 
Later,  traces  of   formation   of  hydrogen    sulphide    (haut     gout)     may 
develop  (W.  Eber,  Glage)    as  a  result  of  the  sulphur  compounds  present 
in  the  meat. 

The  nature  of  ripening  of  meat  consists,  according  to  recent  investigations 
(Salkowski,  Jacoby,  M.  Miiller,  Vogel),  in  fermentation  processes,  which  may  be 
designated  as  an  auto-digestion  (Salkowski)  ;  or  autolysis  (Jacoby,  M.  Miiller), 
also  as  a  physiological  destruction  of  the  meat  (Glage). 

B.  Stinking  sour  fermentation  occurs  in  meat  which  could  not  cool 
out.  Thus    it  appears    in  game  which  is  tightly  packed  together    while 
still  containing  body  heat,  or  in  meat  of  slaughtered  animals   if  it  is  piled 
up  without  being  sufficiently  chilled.    The  condition  is  designated  in  game 
as  "overheated ;"  in  meat,  as  "suffocated." 

[This  condition  is  termed  "sour  side"  in  the  United  States,  and  is 
produced  by  hanging  the  sides  too  close  to  each  other  in  the  cooler,  thus 
preventing  the  proper  circulation  of  cooled  air  between  them ;  and  also 
by  too  sudden  chilling  of  the  carcass,  whereby  insufficient  time  is  given 
for  gradual  disappearance  of  body  heat.] 

In  game  the  hair  can  be  pulled  out  by  the  handful  from  the  skin,  the 
subcutis  is  colored  green,  and  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  copper-red-colored 

327 


328  Chap.  VIII.     Post-mortem  Changes  of  Meat 

muscles  change  in  the  same  way;  gas  cysts  may  appear.  The  last  two 
changes  are  also  observed  in  pieces  of  meat  of  food  animals.  The  stink- 
ing products  contain  large  quantities  of  H2S.  The  determination  of  fer- 
mentation processes  is  not  difficult  by  these  described  changes.  The 
presence  of  an  acid  reaction  is  necessary,  and  the  absence  of  ammonia 
(see  Demonstration  of  Putrefaction). 

Judgment. — While  meat  in  a  state  of  simple  sour  fermentation  is 
suitable  for  human  consumption,  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  designated  in 
that  condition  as  "table  ripe ;''  on  the  other  hand,  meat  showing  the  slight- 
est trace  of  stinking  sour  fermentation  should  be  considered  highly 
spoiled,  and  be  condemned,  as  injurious  to"  health. 

[The  above  judgment  applies  also  to  meat  inspection  in  the  United 
States  (see  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  19,  section  i)]. 

2,     Putrefaction  of  Meat 

Putrefaction  of  meat  is  a  parasitic  decomposition,  which  by  adequate 
treatment,  curing  or  preserving,  may  be  checked.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  above  all  superinduced  by  heat  and  moisture.  The  last  two  factors 
facilitate  the  growth  of  putrefactive  microorganisms. 

Nature  and  Development. — Obligatory  anaerobic  bacteria  come  into  considera- 
tion as  agents  of  putrefaction,  especially  the  bacillus  putrificus  (Bienstock),  bacillus 
edematis  maligni  (page  292),  bacillus  gangrenae  emphysematosse  (page- 312),  for 
whose  existence  and  development  satisfactory  conditions  are  produced  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  meat  through  abstraction  of  oxygen  by  the  aerobic  bacteria.  Of  the 
aerobic  bacteria  in  putrefactive  meat,  there  may  be  found  staphylococci,  bacterium 
coli,  species  of  proteus  (Fig.  142  ^and  143),  and  bacteria,  which  greatly  resemble 
the  bacillus  enteritidis  Gartner.  The  bacillus  paraputrificus  Bienstock,  retards 
putrefaction. 

The  action  of  putrefactive  micro-organisms  consists  in  the  decomposition  of 
albuminous  bodies  and  gelatinous  substances, -which  are  broken  up  under  the  for- 
mation of 'gases  of  a  disagreeable  odor.  The  freer  the  supply  of  oxygen  to  the 
putrefactive  meat,  the  quicker  and  more  completely  decomposition  progresses 
(rotting).  With  an  insufficient  supply  of  air,  a  stinking  putrefication  develops.  As 
end  products  of  putrefactive  decomposition  there  develops,  according  to  Gotschlich  : 

1.  Gases  (CO2,  CH4,  H2,  N2,  NH3,  H2S)  ; 

2.  Fatty  acids  (formic,  acetic,  butyric,  valerianic,  palmitic  acid)  ; 

3.  Oxy — and  more  basic  acids   (lactic — succinic — oxalic  acid)  ; 

4.  Various  other  substances   (amines,  amides,  amido-acids,  leticin,  tyrosin,  aro- 
matic acids,  indol,  scatol,  peptone,  ptomaines,  toxins). 

Toxins  appear  to  assume  the  properties  of  strong  poisons  only  in  the  presence 
of  a  free  supply  of  air  (Nielson). 

Lesions. — Putrefaction  as  a  rule  begins  on  the  surface  of  meat  and 
penetrates  the  deep  parts,  following  the  course  of  the  connective  tissue. 
The  muscle  fibers  proper  resist  putrefaction  for  some  time.  Meat  of  ani- 


Putrefaction  of  Meat 


329 


mals  which  had  febrile  affection,  or  that  of  insufficiently  bled  animals, 
putrefies  quicker  than  flesh  of  healthy  animals. 

Stinking,  putrefactive,  malodorous  substances  do  not  necessarily 
appear,  as  was  mentioned  above,  in  all  putrefactions;  besides  they  vary 
considerably  in  accordance  with  the  kind  of  meat.  In  putrid  meat-sausages 
and  salted  meat  stinking  odors  are  sometimes  entirely  absent.  Some  of 
the  putrefactive  odors  appear  more  pronounced  in  treating  meat  with 
acids  or  alkalies;  some  again  are  not  influenced  by  such  treatment. 
Marked  changes  of  color  (turning  gray,  yellow,  green)  are  not  always 
characteristic.  Changes  in  the  consistence  appear  noticeable  only  in 
advanced  stages  of  putrefaction, 
and  then  the  meat  appears  slop- 
py, smeary,  porous.  Alkalinity 
alone  is  no  criterion  of  putrefac- 

/"J~'     ^V^C""X   rf\r'j 

tion,  but  it  may  be  found  always       §*&     8  <~>  ""*    ^ 
to  be  present  in  the  same.     Pu-      "^ 
trefactive  toxins  are  very  resist- 
ant against  the  customary  meth- 
ods of  preparing  meats,  and  can- 
not be  even  completely  destroyed 


Fig.   142 
Proteus   vulgaris. 


Fig.  143 

From    a   pure   culture,     x   730   diameters.     After 

Gelatine 


Fig.    142. 
\Yeichselbaum. 

Fig.   143.     Colony  of  the  proteus  vulgaris   with   swarming  processes. 
plate,     x  70   diameters.     After   Weichselbaum. 


by  ordinary  boiling;  they  lose  their  poisonous  effects  after  heating  for 
\y2  hours  at  100°  C.,  according  to  Scholl. 

For  proof  of  putrefaction,  the  changes  of  meat  in  relation  to  color, 
consistence,  odor,  taste,  resistance,  should  be  taken  into  consideration,  but 
they  may  appear  greatly  varied,  and  their  detection  must  depend  to  a 
large  extent  on  subjective  perception  by  the  inspector.  Besides,  the  bac- 
terioscopic  and  bacteriological  examination  shows  very  large  numbers  of 
anaerobic  and  aerobic  bacteria.  The  muscle  fibers  under  the  microscope 
appear  cloudy  and  infested  with  bacteria ;  triple  phosphate  crystals  may  be 
present. 


330 


Chap.  VIII.     Post-mortem  Changes  of  Meat 


According  to  Marxer,  meat  should  be  considered  as  putrefactive  if 
one  gram  contains  over  a  million  of  organisms  of  any  kind,  or  proteus 
bacteria  in  large  numbers.  W.  Eber  recommends  proving  the  presence 
of  free  ammonia,  which  develops  in  meat  in  all  putrefaction ;  and  his 
putrefactive  test  (see  below)  is  based  upon  this  fact.  In  opposition  to 
this,  however,  Glage  claims  that  it  cannot  by  itself  be  decisive  for  the 
demonstration  of  putrefaction,  as  the  presence  of  ammonia  is  not  an 
exclusively  specific  sign  of  putrefaction,  and  its  development  does  not 
occur  sufficiently  early  with  the  formation  of  toxins  in  the  meat.  Glage 
demands  a  bacteriological  examination  of  meat  which 
is  in  the  act  of  decomposition  by  making  smear- 
preparations,  cultures,  and  animal  experiments.  How- 
ever, this  requirement  which  may  be  justified  from  a 
scientific  standpoint,  could  be  carried  out  in  practice 
only  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  In  large  pieces  of 
meat,  examination  should  extend  particularly  to  the 
deeper  layers  of  muscles,  as  putrefactions  of  the  sur- 
face may  be  present  without  involving  deeper  parts. 

Eber's  test  for  putrefaction  is  based  on  the  fact  that  when 
ammonia  and  hydrochloric  acid  vapors  combine,  gray  to 
white  sal  ammoniac  clouds  form.  For  this  test  the  following 
reagents  are  used:  Acid  hydrochloric,  pur.  i.o,  alcohol,  3.0, 
ether  i.o.  Of  this  mixture,  enough  is  poured  into  a  2  cm. 
wide  reagent  glass  (Fig.  144)  to  cover  its  bottom  to  the  depth 
of  i  cm.  The  glass  can  be  closed  by  a  rubber  stopper, 
through  which  a  glass  rod  is  inserted,  which  almost  reaches 
to  the  surface  of  the  fluid.  On  the  rod  is  placed  a  small  sam- 
ple of  the  material  to  be  examined,  or  from  the  latter. some 
of  the  juice  is  taken  up  by  the  glass  rod.  After  the  reagent 
has  been  shaken  in  the  test  tube,  in  order  to  fill  the  tube  with 
the  vapors  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  the  glass  rod  is  set  into 
the  tube.  The  reaction  varies  in  accordance  with  the  quantity 
of  ammonia,  which  is  set  free  from  the  sample.  There  is  a 
formation  of  gray,  smoke-gray,  or  white  clouds,  which,  start- 
ing at  the  sample,  sink  down  to  the  surface  of  the  fluid. 
Naturally  no  free  ammonia  should  be  present  in  the  room 
where  the  examination  is  made;  the  sample  to  be  examined 
should  not  be  colder  than  the  reagent  glass. 
This  test  is  not  applicable  on  pickled  meats  on  account  of  the  presence  of 

trimethylamin. 

Proof  of  the  presence  of  hydrogen  sulphate,  which  can  be  easily  tested  with  a 

paper  moistened  in  a   10  per  cent,   solution   of  nitrate  of  lead,   cannot   essentially 

support   the    diagnosis   of  putrefaction,   as    TfeS    forms    soon,    even   in    fresh   meat 

(Rubner,  Glage). 

The  judgment  of  putrefactive  meat  which  shows  considerable  per- 
ceptible changes  is  not  difficult,  as  such  would  at  once  be  considered  highly 


Fig.  144.  Reagent 
glass  for  Eber's 
test  for  putrefac- 
tion. 


Mixed  Processes  in  the  Decomposition  of  Meat,  etc.  331 

spoiled  and  unfit  for  human  food.  In  general,  it  may  be  considered  injuri- 
ous to  health,  but  this  is  not  in  direct  relation  to  the  intensity  of  the  putre- 
faction. The  nature  of  the  causative  agents  of  putrefaction  enters  into 
this  question;  also  numerous  unknown  additional  circumstances,  and 
besides  symbyotic  processes  of  the  concerned  bacteria.  Therefore,  Eber's 
test  alone  cannot  be  sufficient  for  establishing  the  injurious  properties  of 
meat,  but  in  general,  it  is  only  useful  as  a  supporting  diagnostic  method 
for  determining  bacterial  decomposition. 

Judgment. — With  reference  to  this  condition,  and  in  consideration  of 
the  significant  poisonous  properties  of  putrefactive  toxins  under  various 
conditions  (see  Chap.  X),  precaution  should  be  taken  to  withhold  even 
slightly  putrid  meat  from  the  market;  however,  from  the  standpoint  of 
law  its  injuriousness  to  health  cannot  be  positively  asserted,  which  has 
also  been  considered  as  doubtful  by  van  Ermengem.  Therefore,  in  making 
decision  it  should  be  always  with  consideration  of  the  forensic  results.  It 
is  always  advisable  to  declare  meat  with  superficial  decomposition  of  infe- 
rior quality,  and  at  the  same  time  the  changed  layers  of  the  meat-  should 
be  removed. 

[In  accordance  with  the  regulations  governing  the  meat  inspection  of 
the  United  States,  meats  which  on  reinspection  show  evidence  of  putre- 
faction should  be  considered  unhealthful  and  therefore  unfit  for  human 
food.  (See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  19,  section  i.)] 

3*     Mixed  Processes  in  the  Decomposition  of  Meat 

Various  kinds  of  fermentative  and  putrefactive  processes  may  natu- 
rally develop  simultaneously  in  the  meat,  and  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
characterize  exactly  their  nature.  Especially  difficult  is  the  demonstration 
of  the  presence  of  the  exceptionally  dangerous  bacillus  botulinus 
(page  364)  in  the  meat  either  microscopically  or  bacteriologically.  The 
judging  in  such  cases  has  to  depend  principally  upon 'the  objective  char- 
acteristics of  the  meat,  and  the  unfavorable  conditions  should  be  always 
considered  as  decisive. 

4,     Other  Microphytic  Changes  of  Meat 

A.  Mould  formation  on  meat  is  mostly  the  result  of  keeping  it  in 
damp,  poorly  ventilated  rooms.  Of  the  known  mould  fungi,  'the  peni- 
cillium,  aspergillus,  and  mucor  species  are  especially  apt  to  establish  them- 
selves on  meat,  the  surface  of  which  they  cover  with  their  white,  gray, 
or  grayish-green  tufts,  which  may  also  proliferate  into  the  slits,  gaps,  ves- 
sels and  cuts  of  the  meat  (Figs.  145,  146,  and  147). 


332 


Chap.   VIII.     Post-mortem   Changes   of   Meat 


Regarding  the  "chemical   changes   of   mouldy   meat,   the   results   of   Butjagin'b 
investigations  contain  the  desired  information. 

B.  The  phosphorescence  of  meat  in  the 
dark  is  the  result  of  an  infection  of  its  surface 
with  phosphorescent  bacteria.  The  organism 
which  comes  principally  into  consideration  in 
this  connection  is  bacillus  (photobacterium) 
phosphorescens,  which,  according  to  Molisch, 
is  the  most  widely  distributed  phosphorescent 
bacterium. 


Matzuschita  classifies  the  phosphorescent  bacteria 
into  two  groups,  one  of  which  liquifies  gelatine,  while 
the  other  leaves  it  unliquified.  To  the  first  belong 
4  species  of  the  bac.  phosphorescens :  the  bac.  lumi- 
nosus  and  the  bac.  cyaneo-phosphorescens ;  to  the 
second,  6  additional  species  of  the  bac.  phosphor- 
escens. 

According  to  Sacksland  the  phosphorescence  bac- 
teria are  very  resistant  to  high  degrees  of  cold. 


Fig.  145.  Aspergillus  glau- 
cus.  C ' ,  conidia  chains ;  F, 
young  eurotium-perithe- 
cium ;  M,  mycelium,  x  300 
diameters. 


C.  Red  and  Blue  Colorations  of  Meat. — A  spotted  reddening  of  the 
surface  of  meat  may  be  produced  by  an  infection  with  various  species  of 
the  bacillus  prodigiosus. 

This  condition  should  not 
be  confused  with  the  dif- 
fused reddening  of  boiled 
meat  which  has  already  been 
mentioned  on  page  76,  and 
which  is  produced  by  the 
action  of  nitrites  and  sul- 
phites. 

Superficial  blue  color- 
ation of  meat  is  pro- 
duced by  the  Bacillus 
cyano  genus. 

D.  Diverse  Changes 
of  Meat. — Besides  the 
above-mentioned  micro- 
organisms, the  most 
varied  microbes  thrive 
on  meat,  the  development  of  which  is  greatly  favored  by  the  suitable  nutri- 
tive substance  and  by  inadequate  storing  of  the  meat. 


Fig  146 

Penicillium 


Fig.  147 

C ' ,    conidiae ;    M. 


Fig.    146.     Penicillium    glaucum. 
mycelium,     x  300  diameters. 

Fig.  147.  Mucor  mucedo.  C,  bursted  sporangium 
with  conidiae;  G,  closed  sporangium;  Z,  germinating 
zygospore;  B,  carrier  of  conidiae  with  sporangium  in 
a  schematic  longitudinal  section,  x  300  diameters. 


Insect  Larvae  on  Meat  333 

At  this  point  there  come  into  consideration  the  aroma  bacteria  (Glage),  which 
belong  to  the  ice  bacteria,  and  which  develop  only  on  meat  kept  in  cool  places. 
They  produce,  besides  ammonia,  a  fruit-like  odor. 

As  the  causes  of  some  of  the  infectious  diseases  of  man  (typhoid,  cholera, 
scarlet  fever  and  others)  thrive  on  meat,  it  should  not  be  kept  anywhere  near  a 
place  where  any  such  contagion  exists. 

In  judging  the  changes  of  meat  described  in  this  section  it  should  be 
remembered  that  they  are  principally  of  a  superficial  nature,  and  that  they 
do  not  otherwise  affect  the  meat  to  a  disadvantage.  If,  therefore,  no 
decomposition  (putrefaction,  stinking  fermentation)  accompany  these 
conditions,  mouldy  or  phosphorescent  meat  or  meat  showing  colored 
spots  is,  as  a  rule,  neither  injurious  to  health  nor  spoiled ;  and  after 
removal  of  the  fungoid  vegetation  or  washing  with  vinegar,  it  should  be 
passed  for  food. 

A  declaration  of  inferior  quality  should  be  made  only  if  the  described 
changes  are  well  marked.  In  the  presence  of  moulds  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  meat  might  take  up  a  mouldy  taste  and  odor,  which  should  be 
determined  by  the  boiling  test. 

A  highly  spoiled  condition,  and  with  it  an  unntness  for  food,  occurs 
in  the  presence  of  marked  mouldy  taste  and  odor. 

The  red  coloration  of  sardines  is  supposed  to  be  injurious  to  health. 

[Meats  showing  changes  described  above  are  judged  in  the  United 
States  on  the  same  lines  as  in  Germany ;  however,  a  declaration  of  inferior 
quality  does  not  enter  into  consideration,  and  in  such  cases  the  extent  of 
the  changes  decides  whether  the  meat  should  be  passed  for  food  or  be 
condemned.] 

5,     Insect  Larvae  on  Meat 

During  summer  this  condition  may  easily  occur.  The  flies  deposit 
their  eggs  or  living  larvae  on  the  meat,  from  which  the  fly  larvae  (mag- 
gots) develop  rapidly,  sometimes  within  24  hours.  The  following  species 
especially  come  into  consideration : 

A.  Musca  vomitoria  (blow-fly,  muck-fly,  blue-bottle  fly).     Stubby, 
cheeks  black,  red  hairs,  four  black  back  shield  stripes ;  rear  of  body  steel- 
blue  (Fig.  148). 

B.  Sarophaga  carnocia    (meat-fly).     Slender;  gray;  rear  of  body 
checkered ;  three  black  back  stripes ;  eyes  red.     Prefer  putrid  meat,  and 
deposit  living  larvae  (Fig.  149). 

The  length  of  the  latter  on  the  first  day  is  I  mm.,  and  every  day  it  increases 
about  i  mm. 

C.  Musca  domestica  (house-fly),  and 

D.  Stomoxys  calcitrans  (stinging-fly).    Gray,  resembling  the  house- 
fly, with  horizontal  stinging  proboscis  on  the  head.     Back  shield  with 


334 


Chap.  VIII.     Post-mortem  Changes  of  Meat 


three  whitish  stripes.    Lays  eggs  only  exceptionally  on  decomposed  meat : 
otherwise  prefers  horse  manure  (Fig.  150). 

Besides  these  flies  there  is  the  aglossa  pinguinalis  (fat  cockroach),  which  lays 
its  eggs  on  bacon,  and  later  these  eggs  develop  into  the  i6-footed  glittering  brown 
caterpillar.  This  cockroach  is  reddish  brown,  has  glittering  wings,  the  front  ones 
of  which  are  covered  with  spots  resembling  cross-bands,  while  the  hind  wings  have 
long  fringes. 

By  keeping  ham  in  bran  or  flour,  it  may  become  infested  with  the  tyroglyphus 
farinae  (flour  mite). 

^s 

Judgment. — As  the  larvae  of  flies 

may  occur  on  the  surface  of  per- 
fectly fresh  meat,  their  presence  is 
not  sufficient  to  claim  that  it  is 
spoiled  or  of  inferior  quality.  This, 
however,  could  be  asserted  and 
even  total  condemnation  made  if 
the  maggots  enter  the  meat.  Be- 


Fig.  149  Fig.  150 


Fig.  148.     Musca  vomitoria.     x  2  diameters. 
Fig.  149.     Sarcophaga  carnaria.     x  2  diameters. 
Fig.  150.     Stomoxys  calcitrans.     x  3  diameters. 

sides,  the  consistency  of  the  meat  has  also  to  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
this  decision. 

[Judgment  in  the  United  States  is  the  same  as  in  Germany.] 

6»     Other  Changes 

A.  In  the  soiling  of  meat  during  slaughter  with  urine,  bile,  intesti- 
nal contents,  pus  or  ichor,  it  frequently  happens  that  simple  washing  of 
the  meat  is  not  sufficient  for  their  removal,  and  in  such  cases,  especially 
in  soiling  with  pus  and  ichor,  the  superficial  layers  of  the  meat  should  be 
removed. 


Souring  and  Rancidity  of  Fats  335 

Regarding  contamination  of  meat  with  anthrax  bacilli,  see  page  280,  with  pus- 
producing  organisms,  page  299.  That  tubercle  bacilli  may  be  transmitted  to  the 
meat  by  contaminated  tools  of  butchers  is  possible,  according  to  the  investigations 
of  Decker. 

B.  Absorption  of  odors  may  occur  through  unsuitable  storing  of 
meat.     Especially  are  the  odors  from  the  following  substances  readily 
absorbed  and  retained :     Carbolic  acid,  chlorine,  turpentine,  tar  vapors, 
tobacco,  and  carrion.    The  corresponding  odor  and  taste  appear,  as  a  rule, 
only  after  the  meat  is  prepared ;  therefore  a  boiling  test  should  be  made 
in  all  suspected  cases. 

Sulphurous  acid,  according  to  Kickton,  may  occur  in  meat  if  it  be  kept  in  sul- 
phurated rooms. 

Carbolic  acid  can  be  demonstrated  in  meat  by  bromide  water,  which  forms 
with  a  watery  carbolic  solution  a  yellowish-white  precipitation  of  tribromide  of 
phenol  (Glage). 

C.  Metallic  poisons  may  be  transmitted  to  meat  through  unsuitably 
prepared  storage  containers  (tin  boxes,  lead  solder),  or  by  machines  for 
working  up  meat. 

Judging  of  the  above-mentioned  cases  follows  in  accordance  with 
the  cause  itself. 

D.  Peculiar  changes  in  color,  the  nature  of  which  is  yet  to  be  determined, 
are  shown  occasionally  in  boiling  apparently  normal  udders  of  cows.  The  entire 
substance  of  the  udder,  after  boiling  is  completed,  appears  of  a  bluish,  dark  blackish- 
blue,  or  an  ink-like  color. 

These  changes  are  observed  only  after  a  certain  time  following  slaughter,  in 
the  working  up  or  during  the  culinary  preparation  of  the  tissue,  and  they  are 
supposed  to  occur  only  in  udders  of  older  animals  during  lactation.  Such  changes 
cannot  be  determined,  even  after  thorough  examination  of  the  organ  in  an  unpre- 
pared condition. 

While  no  injurious  results  to  health,  so  far  as  known,  have  been  observed  from 
their  ingestion,  yet  such  changed  udders  should  be  condemned. 

7,     Souring  and  Rancidity  of  Fats 

Fatty  acids  in  large  quantities  develop  in  fats  and  in  meats  rich  in 
fat  when  unsuitably  stored,  and  produce  a  souring  of  the  product.  The 
causes  for  this  lie  principally  in  the  influence  of  light  and  oxygen,  which 
split  the  fatty  acids  and  oxy-fatty  acids  from  the  fats,  and  possibly  also 
from  the  action  of  fat-splitting  micro-organisms. 

Souring  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  development  of  rancidity,  but 
the  degree  of  souring  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  acidity  of  the  fat.     The 
rancid  odor  and  taste  of  fats  are  in  connection  with  the   formation  of 
aldehydes  and  ketones,  which  originate  from  the  glycerin.     The  forma 
tion  of  alcohol  from  lactose   probably  plays  a  part  in  this  also. 


336  Chap.  VIII.     Post-mortem  Changes  of  Meat 

Rancid  odor  may  also  be  produced  without  any  marked  changes  in  the  meat 
through  infection  with  the  Bacillus  botulinus.  However,  in  those  cases  souring  of 
meat  is  absent,  as  the  B.  botulinus  grows  only  on  alkaline  soil. 

Souring  and  rancidity  in  meat  containing  fat  is  recognized  by  the 
characteristic  changes  in  odor  and  taste,  both  of  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  stinking  and  repulsive.  The  degree  of  acidity,  that  is  the  quan- 
tity of  acid  in  fat,  and  its  rancidity  should  be  established  by  the  chemist. 

Judgment. — Rancid  meat  products  should  be  declared  of  inferior 
quality,  inasmuch  as  rancidity  does  not  demand  the  total  condemnation  of 
the  meat.  No  injurious  effect  to  health  from  the  ingestion  of  rancid 
meat  has  as  yet  been  proven,  and  the  same  applies  to  free  fatty  acids. 

If  Bacillus  botulinus  is  the  cause  of  the  rancid  changes,  then  the  meat 
is  always  injurious  to  health  (page  365). 

[There  is  no  standard  adopted  in  the  United  States  by  which  the 
rancidity  of  meat  and  fat  is  judged.  The  condition,  taste,  and  odor  are 
the  guides  by  which  the  dispositions  are  made. 

Fats  are  looked  upon  with  suspicion  if  they  contain  over  il/>  per 
cent,  of  acidity,  and  when  in  such  cases  there  is  also  a  marked  rancid  taste 
and  odor  they  are  considered  as  unfit  for  food.] 


'  -     "  • 

IX,   Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared 

•• 

and  Preserved  Meats,  as  Well  as  Chickens, 
Game,  Fish,  Amphibia,  and  Crustaceans 

1,     Preserved  and  Prepared  Meat 

The  properties  of  the  meat  to  be  discussed  in  this  section,  as  well  as 
the  manner  of  obtaining  it,  has  been  amply  discussed  in  Chapters  I  and 
III.  For  examination  and  judgment  of  such  meat  in  general,  all  the  prin- 
ciples apply  which  have  already  been  described  in  the  previous  chapters. 
Therefore,  only  those  essential  characteristics  will  be  mentioned  in  the 
following  discussion,  which  deserve  special  significance  for  the  kind  of 
meat  belonging  here. 

A,     Ground  Meat,  Sausages,  and  Meats  Prepared  by  Culinary  Methods 

The  composition  and  ingredients  of  ground  meat  and  sausage,  also 
of  culinary  prepared  meat  preparations  when  they  consist  of  small  pieces, 
are  difficult  to  determine. 

The  addition  of  starch  flour  may  be  quite  easily  established  by  treat- 
ment with  tincture  of  iodine  or  Lugol's  solution.  It  is  best  to  boil  a  small 
piece  of  the  sausage,  etc.,  in  water,  and  then  to  the  cooled  decoction  add 
Lugol's  solution.  While  smearing  the  cut  surface  of  sausage  with  iodine 
solution  also  discloses  the  blue  coloration  developing  from  the  presence 
of  starch  flour,  yet  in  these  cases  the  occurrence  of  single  blue  dots 
(starch  from  spices)  should  not  be  considered  as  intentional  addition  of 
starch.  As  is  well  known,  the  starch  granules  can  also  be  easily  recog- 
nized microscopically.  The  quantitative  determination  of  the  addition  of 
starch  should  be  trusted  to  professional  chemists. 

Testing  for  mixtures  of  egg  albumen  and  gum  tragacanth  ("albu- 
mina")  (page  72)  should  also  be  left  for  the  chemist. 

Regarding  the  tests  for  horse  meat,  see  pages  66  and  69. 

Trichina  and  measles  are  the  principal  parasites  which  should  be 
given  consideration.  While  microscopic  examination  of  presumably  pieces 
of  pork  might  disclose  the  presence  of  trichina,  such  an  examination  will 
always  remain  incomplete  for  easily  understood  reasons,  taking  into  con- 

23  337 


338  Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment,  etc. 

sideration  the  comminuted  masses  of  meat.  This  should  be  also  con- 
sidered in  delivering  an  opinion.  The  examination  for  measles  is  very 
circumstantial  and  uncertain. 

Regarding  the  occurrence  of  coloring  materials,  a  striking  red  color 
of  the  ground  (chopped)  meat  indicates  mixing  with  sulphurous  acid 
salt£.  In  the  presence  of  a  superficial  red  coloration  of  boiled  or  roasted 
meat,  the  nitrate  action  on  the  muscle-coloring  matter  mentioned  on  page 
76,  should  be  remembered. 

Coloring  of  sausages  with  .  artificial  materials  (page  73)  is  sus- 
pected when  the  fat  pieces  present  show  a  red  coloration  on  their  periph- 
eries. For  the  demonstration  of  artificial  coloring  matter,  the  following 
method  will  be  found  satisfactory : 

Two  lots  of  ground  meat  each  containing  20  g.  are  heated  for  ^2  hour 
in  a  water  bath  with  occasional  shaking:  the  first 

(a)  With  40  c.  c.  of  a  slightly  acidified  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
glycerin  and  water :  the  second 

(b)  With  40  c.  c.  of  a  4  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  sodium  salic- 
ylate;  then  it  is  pressed  and  filtered.  If  one  or  both  filtrates  show  a  red 
color    it  is  evident  that  artificial  colorings  are  present.     In  the  presence 
of  carmine  in  the  filtrate  a,  following  an  over-saturation  with  an  ammoniac 
solution  and  addition  of  alum  solution  after  a  few  hours  standing  in  a 
glass  cylinder,  a  red  stained  deposit  on  the  bottom  of  the  container  can 
be  seen.     For  the  demonstration  of  coal-tar  colorings  a  thread  of  raw 
cotton  is  boiled  with  a  part  of  the  stained  extract  and  with  10  c.  c.  of  a 
10  per  cent,  potassium  sulphate  solution  for  a  considerable  time.     In  the 
presence  of  coal-tar  coloring  the  thread  turns  red  and  retains  that  color, 
even  after  washing  in  water. 

Examinations  for  spoiled  conditions  arrl  decompositions  should  be 
made  according  to  the  instruction  given  on  page  330.  Spoiled  sausages 
have  mostly  a  smeary  appearance,  and  show  a  cyst  formation  under  the 
covering,  which  is  brittle  and  separates  readily  from  the  sausage  filling. 
Blood  sausage,  after  it  is  spoiled,  shows  on  its  cut  surface  a  pale  red 
color;  the  odor  is  sour,  and  the  fat  areas  appear  yellow'ish-green.  The 
cut  surface  of  liver  sausage  reddens  after  being  spoiled,  and  very  soon 
emits  a  sour  odor.  Jelly  sausages  turn  soft,  friable,  smeary,  sour,  and 
stinking.  Meat  sausages  appear,  according  to  their  water  contents,  of  a 
uniform  gray,  grayish-green,  or  reddish-yellow  color,  with  a  discolora- 
tion of  the  fat. 

All  sausages  which  are  rich  in  carbohydrates  putrify  under  certain 
conditions  very  rapidly  and  strongly.  Furthermore,  all  other  manifesta- 
tions of  putrefaction,  taste,  mold  formation,  etc.,  should  be  considered. 


Ground  Meat,  Sausage,  and  Meats  339 

Shilling  undertook  investigations  in  regard  to  the  contents  of  dirt  in  sausage 
coverings,  by  examining  fresh  intestines  which  had  been  cleaned  in  the  usual  way. 
He  found  that  each  meter  of 

Hogs'  small  intestines  weighing  2.16  g.    contained  0.330  g.  dry  substance. 

Hogs'  large  intestines  weighing  4.98  g.    contained  0.530  g.  dry  substance. 

Cattle  small  intestines  weighing  2.47  g.    contained  0.275  g-  dry  substance. 

Cattle  large  intestines  weighing  5.00  g.    contained  0.666  g.  dry  substance. 

The  considerable  amount  of  dirt  in  the  large  intestines  is  caused  by  the  number 
of  deep  folds. 

Meat  sausages,  the  filling  in  which  has  a  gray  border,  or  which  has 
entirely  turned  gray  (page  73),  should  not  be  considered  as  spoiled 
without  further  thought,  but  they  should  be  examined  for  characteristic 
signs  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction. 

Rancidity  (page  335)  should  be  determined  by  taste,  which  is  sharp, 
harsh,  and  consequently  disagreeable.  The  exact  test  for  rancidity  should 
be  made  by  a  chemist,  who  should  also  establish  the  degree  of  acidity. 

The  judging  of  deviations  mentioned  here  is  made  according  to  pre- 
viously developed  principles  with  regard  to  the  spoiled  condition  and  the 
presence  of  parasites. 

Regarding  the  admissibility  of  starch  flour  in  making  sausages,  and 
the  addition  of  so-called  albumina,  see  page  72. 

Von  Raumer  demands  punishment  for  adulteration  when  binding  substances  are 
used.  Sausage  prepared  with  i  per  cent,  of  binding  substance  contained  53.075  per 
cent.  water ;  with  4  per  cent,  of  such  substance,  it  contained  58.08  per  cent,  of  water, 
compared  with  43.33  per  cent,  of  water  in  sausage  without  binding  substances. 

The  coloring  of  sausage  filling,  but  not  of  casings,  is  prohibited 
throughout  the  German  Empire.  The  same  applies  to  the  use  of  sul- 
phurous salts  and  borates.  If  colored  meat  products,  etc.,  containing  the 
above-mentioned  substances  are  offered  for  sale  they  should  be 
confiscated. 

[In  accordance  with  the  regulations  governing  meat  inspection  in  the 
United  States  only  such  coloring  matters  as  may  be  designated  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  being  harmless  may  be  used,  and  these  only 
in  such  a  manner  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  designate. 

The  use  of  chemical  preservatives  with  the  exception  of  salt  and  salt- 
peter, as  well  as  the  addition  of  potato  flour  in  sausage  filling,  is  prohib- 
ited, while  cereals  and  water  may  be  only  used  in  moderate  quantities. 
(See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  22,  sections  I  and  2,  and  Regulation 
23,.  section  3.)] 

Regarding  the  consistence  of  sausage  filling,  the  methods  character- 
istic to  the  various  localities  and  described  on  pages  71-75,  are  decisive. 
The  working  up  into  sausages  of  testicles,  uteri,  fetuses,  and  cattle  skins, 
is  to  be  judged  as  an  adulteration. 


340     Chap.   IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 


B,      Meat  Preserved  by  Physical  Methods 

In  canned  preserves  (page  79)  examination  should  at  first  deter- 
mine whether  they  are  spoiled,  which  can  be  accepted  when  the  contents 
of  the  container  can  be  shaken.  Bulging  of  the  otherwise  concave  bot- 
toms of  the  cans  also  indicates  accumulation  of  gases  within  the  can,  as  a 
result  of  putrefaction.  If  the  gases  were  present,  but  had  been  removed, 
then  on  the  bottom  of  the  can  double  soldering  places  will  be  found, 
together  with  a  movableness  of  the  canned  contents. 

If  a  can  with  shakeable  contents  had  been  exposed  to  heat,  it  should  be  allowed 
to  cool,  as  the  jelly  in  the  cans  liquifies  at  26°  C. 

According  to,  Pfuhl  and  Wintzen,  the  cause  of  bulging  in  canned  preserves  ma}' 
be  also  due  to  an  insufficient  soldering,  of  the  containers.  The  formation  of 
hydrogen  and  the  separation  of  ferrous  phosphate  stand  in  direct  relation  to 
each  other,  and  are  traceable  to  the  action  of  the  organic  acid  contained  in  the 
bouillon  on  the  iron  of  the  walls  of  the  container,  and  to  the  following  secondary 
processes : 

As  soon  as  decomposition  sets  in  it  is  found  on  opening  the  can  that  the 
jelly  is  liquified,  of  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  that  corresponding  changes 
have  occurred  in  the  pieces  of  meat.  But  even  without  decomposition,  the 
liquifying  of  canned  jelly  is  a  suspicious  sign  and  makes  a  more  careful 
examination  necessary  (bacteriologic,  boiling  test,  etc.).  It  should  also 
be  examined  for  adulterations,  prohibited  additions  of  chemicals  and  a 
content  of  inferior  quality  in  the  cans  (gelatinous  admixtures). 

Suspicion  of  lead  salts  in  canned  material  as  a  result  of  a  considerable  content 
of  lead  in  the  pewter  used  for  soldering  requires  chemical  examination. 

The  examination  of  frozen  meat,  to  be  done  accurately,  should  be 
undertaken  only  after  thawing  it  out  in  the  usual  way  (page  147).  Such 
meat  appears  softer  and  more  moist ;  also  the  red  blood  corpuscles  on 
microscopic  examination  can  be  distinguished  from  those  of  meat  not 
frozen,  inasmuch  as  they  are  discolored,  deformed  and  swim  in  a  green- 
ish serum. 

The  latter  contains  the  hemoglobin  in  the  form  of  irregular  yellowish- 
brown  crystals. 

The  judging  of  frozen  meat,  and  also  of  canned  meat,  is  carried  out 
in  accordance  with  the  general  principles.  In  spoiled  canned  meats  there 
is  always  a  suspicion  of  harmfulness  to  health ;  wherefore  they  should  be 
declared  as  unfit  for  consumption  (see  Meat  Poisonings,  Chap.  X).  Adul- 
terations, to  which  should  also  be  added  the  gelatin  containing  admix- 
tures, render  the  canned  products  of  inferior  quality. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  23,  section  2,  the 
contents  of  defective  "or  leaking  cans  should  be  condemned  unless  the 


Meat  Preserved  with  Chemical  Substances  341 

repairing  or  repacking  is  done  within  6  hours  of  the  time  of  original  ster- 
ilization. If  the  contents  show  a  spoiled  condition  they  should  always 
be  condemned.] 

G     Meat  Preserved  with  Chemical  Substances 
1.     Pickled  Meat 

Regarding  the  occurrence  of  decomposition  in  pickled  meat,  the  con- 
sistence, surface,  and  condition  of  brine,  and  of  the  meat  near  the  bones, 
and  the  larger  tracts  of  connective  tissue  should  be  especially  considered. 
Regarding  the  examination  for  measles,  trichina,  and  other  diseased 
changes,  nothing  further  need  be  said  here. 

The  iridescence  of  cooked,  pickled,  or  smoked  meat  on  the  cut  sur- 
faces is  the  result  of  deficiency  in  muscular  coloring  matter  (Legge),  and 
is  otherwise  unimportant. 

For  testing  of  common  salt  in  the  deeper  portions  of  the  meat,  dot- 
ting the  cut  surface  with  10  per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  serves 
satisfactorily  and  causes  a  thick  white  precipitation  to  form.  A  better 
test  for  determination  of  thorough  pickling  is  Glage's  method,  which  is 
described  in  the  following : 

(a)  Preparing  the  reagent;   100  c.  c.  of  a  2  per  cent,  nitrate  of 
silver  solution  is  shaken  with  23  c.  c.  of  normal  ammonium  hydrate.  Then 
more  of  the  later  reagent  is  added  drop  by  drop  until  the  precipitate  which 
develops  has  disappeared  and  the  solution  is  as  clear  as  water.    An  excess 
of  40  c.  c.  of  normal  ammonium  hydrate  is  then  added  and  the  solution  is 
diluted  to  200  c.  c.  by  the  addition  of  distilled  water.  This  solution  should 
be  kept  in  yellow  bottles,  each  containing  20  c.  c. 

(b)  Method  of  performing  the  test:    From  the  center  of  the  meat 
a  piece  the  size  of  a  hazelnut  is  taken  and  placed  in  a  test  tube  with  20 
c.  c.  of  the  solution  and  thoroughly  shaken  several  times.  If  a  white  pre- 
cipitate develops,  which  in  daylight  rapidly  turns  black,  it  is  an  indica- 
tion that  the  meat  is  salted  throughj  otherwise  it  is  fresh. 

For  determining  the  presence  of  saltpeter  in  pickled  meat  the  brucin 
reaction  is  the  best,  by  which  the  presence  of  saltpeter  can  be  determined 
in  a  dilution  of  I  :  100,000,  according  to  Simon. 

Several  small  cut  pieces  of  meat  are  soaked  out  in  the  reagent-glass,  with  a  few 
cubic  centimeters  of  water.  One  or  two  drops  of  this  solution  are  placed,  by  means 
of  a  glass  rod,  into  a  white  porcelain  dish,  to  which  2  drops  of  a  brucin  solution 
is  added  (brucin  is  shaken  with  aqua  distillata,  so  that  only  a  small  quantity  of 
brucin  remains  undissolved).  To  this  are  added  5  to  10  drops  of  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  must  be  free  from  nitric  acid.  The  solutions  are  then  allowed 
to  flow  together.  A  pink  coloration  will  develop  in  the  test  solution,  the  intensity 
of  which  depends  on  the  quantity  of  saltpeter  present. 


342     Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 

If  there  is  a  suspicion  of  the  jtresence  of  boracic  acid,  the  following 
test  will  prove  satisfactory  for  the  demonstration  of  boracic  acid  and  its 
salts : 

Thirty  grams  of  ground  meat  is  well  mixed  with  5  c.  c.  of  a  saturated 
sodium  carbonate  solution,  dried  and  ashed  in  a  platinum  dish.  The  ash 
thus  obtained  is  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  with 
the  latter  a  strip  of  carcuma  paper  is  moistened,  which  is  then  dried  on 
a  watch  glass  at  100°  C.  If  in  this  process  the  carcuma  paper  shows  a 
red  coloration  on  the  moistened  part,  which  changes  into  a  blue  by  an 
addition  of  a  drop  of  a  sodium  carbonate  solution,  the  presence  of  boracic 
acid  is  proven.1  The  remaining  portion  of  the  ash  solution  is  made  alka- 
line and  evaporated.  The  residue  is  then  slightly  acidified  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  the  solution  is  placed  in  a  WoulfFs  flask,  mixed  with  methyl 
alcohol,  and  hydrogen  passed  through  the  solution.  The  hydrogen,  when 
ignited,  in  the  presence  of  boracic  acid,  burns  with  a  green-bordered 
flame. 

If  the  meat  is  treated  with  the  salts  of  sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous 
acid,  or  their  salts,  their  presence  may  be  best  determined  by  Kaemerer's 
method,  which  is  best  adapted  according  to  Edelmann,  Meyer,  and  Strauss 
for  a  quick  qualitative  test  of  sulphurous  acid  and  hyposulphites  in  meat. 
It  is  as  follows : 

The  sample  to  be  examined  (fine-cut  meat)  is  placed  on  iodide  of  potassium 
starch  paper,  which  is  prepared  with  iodide  of  potassium.  The  meat  is  moistened 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1:8),  whereupon  the  presence  of  dinatrium  sulphite  or 
sulphurous  acid,  a  deep  brown  ring  develops  around  the  meat  sample,  as  a  result 
of  the  formation  of  iodide  of  starch. 

While  salicylic  acid  is  not  employed  in  the  preservation  of  canned 
meat,  it  is  used  occasionally,  however,  for  the  preservation  of  fresh  meat. 
The  test  is  made  as  follows : 

Fifty  grams  of  ground  meat'is  macerated  in  200  c.  c.  of  a  i  per  cent, 
sodium  carbonate  solution ;  then  it  is  heated  to  a  boiling  point,  acidified 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  after  adding  5  g.  of  sodium  chloride  it  is 
squeezed  and  filtered.  The  filtrate  is  then  mixed  with  a  sodium  carbon- 
ate solution  until  a  slight  alkaline  reaction  is  obtained.  It  is  then  evapo- 
rated to  30  c.  c.,  and  if  necessary  it  is  again  filtered.  The  liquid  is  acidi- 
fied with  sulphuric  acid  and  mixed  with  an  iron  chloride  solution.  A 
violet  coloration  indicates  the  presence  of  salicylic  acid. 

Although  formaldehyde  is  not  adapted  for  the  preservation  of  meat 
on  account  of  its  disagreeable  odor  and  taste,  the  method  for  its  determi- 
nation should  be  indicated : 


1  If  this  test  is  carefully  executed  with  reliable  carcuma  paper  it  is  decisive,  and 
the  test  by  other  methods  may  be  omitted. 


Meat  Preserved  with  Chemical  Substances  343 

Thirty  grams  of  ground  meat  is  placed  in  a  flask  with  a  capacity  of 
about  500  c.  c.  to  which  is  added  a  mixture  of  200  c.  c.  of  water  and 
jo  c.  c.  of  an  aqueous  25  per  cent,  solution  of  phosphoric  acid.  After  a 
1/2  hour's  standing  40  c.  c.  of  this  quantity  is  distilled,  10  c.  c.  of  the  dis- 
tillate is  mixed  with  i  c.  c.  of  a  fuchsin  solution,  which  has  been  discol- 
orized  by  sulphuric  acid.  The  presence  of  formaldehyde  causes  a  red 
coloration.  If  the  latter  does  not  appear  it  does  not  necessitate  a  fur- 
ther examination.  In  case  of  a  positive  reaction  of  the  test  described 
above,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  distillate  is  mixed  with  an  excessive 
quantity  of  ammonium  hydrate  solution  and  is  then  evaporated.  In  the 
presence  of  formaldehyde  characteristic  crystals  of  hexamethyltetramin 
will  remain.  These  are  dissolved  in  a  few  drops  of  water.  One  drop  of 
the  solution  is  placed  on  each  of  2  object  glasses  and  tested  with  both  of 
the  following  reagents  : 

1.  With  mercuric  chloride  in  excess  immediately  a  crystalline  pre- 
cipitate develops ;  soon  stars  may  be  observed  of  3  or  more  rays  and  later 
octohedra.     The  latter  develop  in  large  quantities  in  a  concentration  of 
i  :  10,000,  but  also  very  distinctly  in  i  :  100,000. 

2.  \Yith  mercuric  potassium  iodide  and  a  small  quantity  of.  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid  hexagonal,  pale  yellow  stars  develop ;  they  appear  very 
distinct  even  in  a  concentration  of  i :  10,000. 

The  presence  of  formaldehyde  can  only  be  established  as  proven 
when  the  obtained  crystalline  residue  shows  the  -two  reactions  described 
above. 

Tyrosin  deposits  may  form  on  barreled  livers,  which  are  preserved  in  brine 
(Groning).  The  surface  of  such  livers,  and  the  intima  of  the  vessels  of  the  liver, 
.is  covered  with  small  roundish,  millet-sized  granules,  which  show  a  yellowish  center, 
surrounded  by  a  narrow,  whitish-gray  zone.  On  section,  such  a  liver  appears  mot- 
tled and  sprinkled  with  white  dots.  Microscopically  under  large  magnification  and 
after  clearing  with  glycerin,  fine,  light  needles  lying  closely  together  in  bundles 
may  be  seen  radiating  from  the  opaque,  yellowish  granules  toward  the  periphery. 
A  yellowish-green  solution  of  the  granules  in  nitric  acid  turns  red  on  heating. 

2.     Smoked  Products 

In  examination  of  smoked  products  for  spoiled  conditions  the  parts 
lying  around  the  bones  should  be  especially  observed,  as  well  as  the  larger 
connective  tissue  tracts  and  the  consistency  of  the  skin,  if  such  is  present. 
On  account  of  the  meat  being  more  apt  to  decompose  along  the  bones,  it 
is  a  custom  to  introduce  thin  wooden  sticks  into  hams  in  order  to  be  con- 
vinced by  the  o_dor  test  of  the  good  or  spoiled  condition  of  the  respective 
meat  layers. 

[In  the  United  States,  the  so-called  "tester" — a  sharp-pointed  steel 
rod  with  a  handle,  is  introduced  toward  the  ham  bone  ] 


344  Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 


As  a  result  of  gas  formation  within  the  ham  during  pickling,  small 
vacuoles  may  develop  in  the  muscles  (caro  porosa). 

Regarding  the  iridiscence  of  smoked  meat  on  the  cut  surface  (salmon 
ham),  see  page  341. 

The  judging  of  meat  products  belonging  to  this  section  does  not  offer 
anything  special.  As  the  use  of  boracic  acid,  sulphurous  acid  salts,  and 
formaldehyde  is  prohibited  in  the  German  Empire,  all  meat  found  on  the 
market  to  be  treated  with  these  substances  should  be  confiscated  as  unfit 
for  consumption.  For  police  or  penal  prosecutions  of  such  offenders  the 
preliminary  tests  mentioned  should  be  supplemented  by  exact  chemical 
examinations. 

The  iridescence  and  vacuole  formations  in  meat  are  of  no  importance 
when  other  processes  of  decomposition  can  be  excluded. 

[The  use  of  the  above-mentioned  preservatives  is  prohibited  in  the 
United  States  (see  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Reg.  22,  sees.  I  and  2)]. 

D,    Various  Conserve  Preparations 

Meat  Extract  (pages  41  and  91). — Decomposition  and  mould  formation,  which 
are  easily  recognizable,  spoil  meat  extract  and  render  it  unfit  for  food. 

Wilhelmy  made  investigations  regarding 
the  bacterial  flora  of  meat  extracts.  The 
number  of  organisms,  which  principally 
occur  as  spores,  is  not  very  large. 

Adulterations  are  only  recognizable  by  a 
careful  chemical  examination. 

The  suspicion  of  the  presence  of  horse- 
meat  is  excited  when  the  extract  is  of  a 
thick  slimy  consistence,  has  a  fatty  taste, 
and  does  not  dissolve  clearly  in  water.' 
Broth  made  from  such  extract  forms  films 
on  the  surface  like  cream  on  milk,  which 
repeatedly  reappear  after  removal. 

Lard  and  Cooking  Tallow. — The  principal 
adulterations  are  mentioned  on  page  92. 
Their  detection,  as  well  as  the  determina- 
tion of  the  degree  of  acidity  and  rancidity 
(page  335;,  is  only  possible  by  technical 
examination. 

For  control  of  the  fat  trade,  the  Zeiss- 
Wollny  refractometer  is  best  adapted  for 
ascertaining  suspicious  kinds^  and  grades. 
This  is  also  used  for  the  examination  of  fat 
imported  from  foreign  countries. 

For  examination  of  fats  which  are  not  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  the 
apparatus  must  be  brought  to  a  corresponding  high  temperature  and  maintained 
there.  This  is  accomplished  through  a  warm  water  heating  arrangement.  The 
filtrated  liquid  fat  is  placed  at  the  one-half  of  the  prism  case  B,  and  the  prism  from 


Fig.  151.  Refractometer  by  Zeiss- 
Wollny  in  Jena.  A,  fixed  half  of  the 
prism  case;  B,  movable  half;  C,  joint 
D,  nozzle  for  the  attachment  of  a 
rubber  tube  for  conducting  warm 
water;  E,  nozzle  for  the  attachment 
of  a  rubber  tube  for  drawing  off  the 
warm  water;  T,  closing  pin  for  the 
prism  case;  G,  opening  for  adjust- 
ment of  the  scale ;  H,  supporter  for 
B ;  J }  mirror. 


Various  Conserved  Preparations  345 

R  is  pressed  against  that  of  A.  Then,  through  the  ocular,  the  micrometer  scale 
is  observed  on  the  inside  of  the  tube,  and  the  refraction  thus  observed  is  compared' 
with  the  temperature  as  well  as  with  the  permissible  value  limits  on  a  scaled  table. 
Recently  the  apparatus  has  been  improved  by  Wollny  through  a  so-called  indicator 
thermometer,  the  scale  of  which  does  not  contain  the  temperature  degrees,  but  it 
indicates  the  permitted  value  limits  for  butter  and  lard,  so  that  by  comparing  the 
micrometer  value  and  the  thermometer  degrees,  it  is  at  once  disclosed  whether  the 
sample  is  suspicious. 

If  the  examination  with  the  refractometer  indicates  a  conspicuous  high  nega- 
tive (  — )  value,  or  a  higher  positive  value  (+)  of  more  than  1.3  (+1.3)  the  fat 
should  then  be  examined  for  an  adulteration. 

In  various  tallows — beef,  mutton,  and  goat  tallow — which  appear  on  the  market 
in  a  raw  or  rendered  state  only  the  preserved  condition  comes  under  consideration. 

Tallow  with  an  abnormal  odor,  and  that  which  is  changed  in  color,  should  be 
utilized  only  for  technical  purposes. 

In  the  examination  of  fats  the  following  principles  should  be 
observed : 

1.  In    the    presence    of    moulds,    fungi,  or  colonies  of  bacteria,  it 
should  be  determined  whether  these  represent — 

a  An  insignificant  localized  pollution  from  the  outside  ( for  instance, 
as  a  result  of  slight  defects  in  the  packing). 

b     A  significant  outside  covering  of  the  fat,  or 
c     Proliferations  in  the  inside  of  the  fat. 

2.  In  the  judgment  of  the  color,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  whether 
the  fat  manifests  a  color  which  is  not  characteristic  for  that  particular 
kind  of  fat,  or  whether  it  shows  any  perceptible  foreign  ingredient. 

3.  In  the  test  for  odor  it  should  be  examined  for  a  rancid,  tallowish, 
oily,  sour,  musty,  mouldy,  as  well  as  for  a  putrid  repulsive  odor. 

4.  In  testing  for  the  taste,  it  should  be  established  whether  there  is 
a  bitter  or  a  repulsive  taste.     Care  should  also  be  taken  to  detect  foreign 
ingredients  by  the  taste. 

5.  If  a  musty  odor  or  taste  is  established  the  fat  should  be  examined 
to  learn  if  this  originates  from  insignificant  outside  pollution  of  the  fat 
or  of  the  package. 

Of  the  chemical  examinations  of  fats  it  is  deemed  advisable  to 
describe  only  the  tests  for  foreign  colorings  and  for  adulteration  with 
cotton-seed  oil. 

Test  for  Foreign  Coloring  Matter. — The  presence  of  foreign  coloring 
matter  in  fat  is  established  by  dissolving  the  melted  fat  in  about  double 
the  quantity  of  absolute  alcohol.  In  artificially  colored  fats  the  cooled 
alcoholic  solution'shows  a  pronounced  yellow  or  reddish-yellow  coloration. 

For  the  demonstration  of  certain  coal-tar  colorings,  2-3  g.  of  fat  is 
dissolved  in  5  c.  c.  of  ether,  and  the  solution  is  thoroughly  shaken  in  a 


346     Chap.   IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 

X 

test  tube  with  5  c.  c.  of  hydrochloric  acid,  which  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1,125.  In  the  presence  of  certain  azo  coloring  matters  the  layer  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  which  sinks  to  the  bottom  shows  a  distinct  red  coloration. 

Test  for  Cotton-seed  Oil. — In  a  corked  flask,  which  is  provided  with 
an  upright  tube,  5  c.  c.  of  fat  are  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  amyl- 
alcohol  and  5  c.  c.  of  a  I  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphur  in  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  heated  for  15  minutes  in  a  boiling- water  bath.  If  a  coloration  does 
not  appear,  5  c.  c.  more  of  the  sulphur  solution  are  added  and  it  is  again 
heated  for  *4  of  an  hour.  A  distinct  red  coloration  of  the  solution  is  pro- 
duced by  the  presence  of  cotton-seed  oil. 

If  the  above-described  test  indicates  that  the   fat  is  adulterated  with 
vegetable  oils  a  test  should  be  made  for  phytosterin. 

The  test  for  the  demonstration  of  phytosterin  should  be  carried  out 
in  the  following  way : 

One  hundred  grams  of  the  fat  is  melted  in  a  water  bath  in  a  flask  of 
about  i  liter  capacity,  provided  with  a  return  condenser,  and  the  fat  is 
then  saponified  over  the  boiling-water  bath  by  adding  200  c.  c.  of  an  alco- 
holic potassium  hydroxide  solution,  which  contains  200  g.  potassium 
hydroxide  in  i  liter  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.).  After  the  conclusion  of 
the  saponification,  which  requires  about  l/2  hour,  the  saponified  solution  is 
mixed  with  600  c.  c.  of  water,  and  after  cooling  it  is  shaken  out  four  times 
with  ether  in  a  separating  funnel.  For  the  first  shaking  800  c.  c.  of  ether 
is  used,  while  for  the  three  following  400  c.  c.  of  ether  is  used  for  each ; 
the  solution  is  then  distilled  and  the  residue  is  again  heated  in  a  water 
bath  for  5-10  minutes  with  10  c.  c.  of  the  above  alcoholic  potassium 
hydroxide.  The  solution  is  then  mixed  with  20  c.  c.  of  water,  and  after 
cooling  is  shaken  twice,  using  200  c.  c.  of  ether  in  each  shaking.  The 
ether  solution  is  washed  four  times  with  10  c.  c.  of  water,  then  is  filtered 
through  a  dry  filter  and  the  ether  is  distilled  off.  The  residue  is  placed 
in  a  glass  dish  and  dried  at  100°  C.  Then  2-3  c.  c.  of  acetic  acid  anhy- 
dride is  added,  the  dish  is  covered  with  a  watch  glass,  and  heated  to  boil- 
ing on  a  wire  net  for  about  l/2  minute.  The  excess  of  acetic  acid  anhy- 
dride is  then  evaporated  off  on  the  water  bath.  The  residue  is  then  crys- 
talized  4-5  times  from  1-1.5  c-  c-  °f  absolute  alcohol,  and  after  the  third 
crystalization  the  melting  point  is  determined  for  each  crystalization.  If 
the  last  crystalization  product  melts  only  at  117°  C.  (corrected  melting 
point),  or  higher,  the  test  for  vegetable  oil  should  be  considered 
established. 

Caviar. — In  the  examination  of  caviar  mentioned  on  page  94,  it  should  be 
considered  in  regard  to  color,  consistence,  odor,  taste,  neutral  reaction,  size  of  eggs, 
and  foreign  ingredients. 


Fowl,  Game,  Fish,  etc.  347 

Adulterations  are  made  with  sago,  oil,  bouillon,  white  beer,  and  sometimes  are 
very  difficult  tp  recognize. 

Acid  and  rancid  conditions  in  suspicious  cases  should  be  chemically  determined, 
as  should  also  suspiciously  high,  plain  salt  contents. 

Putrefactive  decompositions  are  evident  in  the  presence  of  ammonia  and  hydro- 
gen sulphide. 

Judgment. — In  the  previously  mentioned  preparations,  all  decompositions 
should  be  judged  in  accordance  with  the  degree;  and  if  such  be  present  in  caviar,  it 
is  to  be  always  considered  injurious  to  health.  A  marked  acid  and  rancid  state, 
renders  fat  and  caviar  spoiled  (inferior  quality),  and  even  unfit  for  food. 

According  to  Niebel,  the  line  between  inferior  quality  and  rancid  caviar  appears 
to  be  a  4.5  per  cent,  content  of  free  fatty  acid. 

2.     Examination  and  Judging  of  Fowls,  Game,  Fish, 
Amphibiae,  Crustaceans,  and  Mollusks 

The  meat  belonging  in  this  section  has  been  already  mentioned  in 
Chapters  I  and  II,  with  reference  to  its  origin  and  characteristics.  As  the 
conditions  to  be  observed  in  the  examination  and  judgment  of  such  meat 
corresponds  in  general  with  those  which  were  established  for  food  ani- 
mals in  the  narrow  sense  (page  134),  it  is  necessary  to  mention  only  a 
few  characteristics  in  the  following: 

A,     Fowl 

Domestic  fowl  should  be  examined  in  life,  and  also  when  slaughtered, 
after  plucking.  The  slaughter  wound  should  be  noted  in  fowls  which  are 
brought  to  the  market  after  being  plucked. 

The  skin  should  not  be  discolored'  (bluish  or  bluish-gray,  faded  or 
shrivelled),  and  should  not  disclose  cadaver  spots. 

Light,  poorly  nourished  geese  are  occasionally  inflated,  according  to 
Ostertag. 

1.     Age 

Regarding  the  age  of  fowl,  a  distinction  is  made,  as  a  rule,  only 
between  young  and  old ;  that  is,  whether  it  is  under  one  year  old  or  over. 
Xiebel  points  out  the  following  signs  of  age : 

The  domestic  pigeon  is  considered  young  until  the  attainment  of  sexual  matu- 
rity; but  most  unfledged  animals  (5-6  weeks)  are  usually  sold  as  young.  In  very 
young  squabs  the  breast  appears  white.  Very  soon  it  changes  to  a  bluish-red,  until 
it  finally  becomes  blue-red.  In  very  young  pigeons  the  entire  breast-bone  is 
flexible ;  in  young  ones  only  the  posterior  end,  while  in  old  pigeons  it  cannot  be 
flexed  at  all.  A  young  pigeon  possesses  long  yellowish  down,  the  tail-feathers 
appear  stemmed;  tfiat  is,  the  shaft  of  the  same  on  the  lower  end  does  not  contain 
any  feathers ;  the  feet  are  closed.  An  older,  full-fledged  pigeon,  has  red-colored 
feet  and  no  down.  According  to  Cornevin,  the  bill  for  the  first  6-8  months  is  soft, 
later  becoming  hard. 


348     Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 

In  very  young  domestic  fowl  the  back  portion  of  the  breast-bone  can  be  easily 
bent  outward;  in  young  fowls  it  breaks  easily,  and  in  old  fowls,  only  when  con- 
siderable force  is  applied.  The  breastbone  keel  bend's  sideways  readily  in  young 
animals;  in  old  ones  it  remains  stable.  The  ischium  and  the  os  pubis  can  be 
pressed  forward  without  breaking  in  young  animals,  while  in  old  ones  the  latter 
occurs  with  a  cracking  sound.  An  old  cock  has  a  spur  over  I  cm.  in  length,  which 
in  the  young  is  correspondingly  smaller.  Occasionally  spurs  may  be  also  met  with 
in  hens.  Older  hens  have  hard  spurs  and  rough  scales  on  the  legs;  the  lower  half 
of  the  bill  cannot  be  bent  at  all  with  the  fingers,  as  is  the  case  with  young  hens. 

In  young  guinea  fowls  the  feather  flag  of  the  outside  quill  feather  is  pointed ; 
in  the  old  birds  it  is  more  or  less  rounded. 

In  turkeys  the  age  is  determined  by  the  spur,  and  also  by  the  above-mentioned 
appearance  of  the  first  quill-feather.  This  is  also  decisive  in  turkey  hens,  in  which 
the  rectum  of  old  animals  is  also  surrounded  by  a  red  ring.  In  a  young  domestic 
goose  or  domestic  duck  the  trachea  at  the  entrance  of  the  thorax  can  be  easily 
impressed;  in  the  old  it  resists  pressure.  If  a  goose  still  possess  yellow  down,  it 
is  then  at  the  most  but  10  weeks  old. 

2.  External  Diseases 

Of  the  external  diseases  of  fowl,  may  be  mentioned  chicken-pox  (epithelioma 
contagiosum),  which  preferably  occurs  in  hens,  turkey  hens  and  pigeons,  on  the 
combs,  wattles,  corners  of  the  bill,  and  also  on  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head 
and  neck,  and,  according  to  Marx  and  Sticker,  is  produced  by  an  ultramicroscopical 
filterable  virus. 

The  comb-scab  (tinea  galli,  chicken  favus-j  and  the  leg-scab  (dermatoryctes 
mutans),  which  leads  to  the  development  of  the  so-called  lime  feet  (scaly  feet), 
should  be  considered. 

3.  Internal  Diseases 

The  numerous  animal  parasites  occurring  internally  in  fowls  are,  as  a  rule,  of  no 
importance  for  the  veterinary  inspector,  except  in  severe  infestations  and  cachectic 
conditions,  thereby  effecting  changes  in  the  meat.  The  connective  tissue  mite 
(symplectapetes  or  laminosioptes  cysticola),  however,  deserves  special  mention,  as  it 
frequently  produces  in  the  subcutaneous  and  muscular  connective  tissue  of  chickens 
dull  white  or  yellowish  spots  and  nodules,  up  to  the  size  of  I  mm.,  occurring  fre- 
quently in  very  large  numbers.  The  contents  of  these  formations  are  otherwise 
granular,  fatty  or  chalky.  In  severe  infestations  with  this  parasite  the  meat 
becomes  unfit  for  human  food;  milder  cases  make  it  a  spoiled  (deficient)  food. 
The  air  sac  mite  (cystodites  nodus)  lives  in  the  neck,  breast,  and  abdominal  air 
sacs  in  chickens  and  pheasants,  where  they  may  cause  inflammatory  changes  and 
necrosis.  In  invasions  of  the  lungs  and  trachea,  inflammation  and  dyspnea  are 
observed.  As  a  result  of  the  numerous  presence  of  davainea  mutabilis  in  the  intes- 
tines of  chickens,  cachectic  conditions  may  develop  (Ruther). 

Of  the  specific  infectious  diseases  of  fowl,  the  following  come  under 
consideration : 

(a)  Chicken  cholera  is  a  septicemic  affection  which  occurs  in  all 
domestic  fowl,  and  spreads  rapidly  in  an  epizootic  form. 

The  cause  is  the  bacterium  avicidum,  which  belongs  to  the  group  of 
hemorrhagic  septicemia  bacilli  (page  316). 


Fowl,   Game,   Fish,   etc.  349 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  the  living  animal  the  symptoms  are  not 
characteristic :  Fever,  dullness,  difficulty  in  respiration,  feathering  bris- 
tled, and  livid  coloring  of  the  comb  in  chickens. 

Occasionally  also  there  is  sudden  death  without  showing  pronounced 
signs  of  illness.  The  anatomical  findings  consist  principally  in  a  hemor- 
rhagic  enteritis ;  hemorrhages  under  the  serous  membranes,  epicardium, 
on  the  heart  and  in  the  lungs ;  infarctions  of  the  muscles  which  in  longer 
sickness  may  also  degenerate. 

The  recognition  of  chicken  cholera  depends  on  the  demonstration  of 
the  bacteria,  which  may  be  found  in  the  blood  of  larger  veins.  In  doubt- 
ful cases  Kitt  recommends  the  inoculation  of  blood  into  pigeons  with  the 
aid  of  lance  prickings  of  the  chest  muscles.  In  case  of  chicken  cholera, 
death  occurs  in  12-48  hours.  Animals  slaughtered  in  the  last  stage  of  the 
disease,  which  becomes  conspicuous  by  the  cadaver  spots  on  the  inside  of 
the  legs  and  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  abdomen,  are,  as  a  rule,  not 
offered  for  sale. 

Judgment. — As  there  is  no  danger  to  human  health  from  eating  these 
fowl,  the  degree  of  the  disease  and  the  condition  of  the  bird  decide 
whether  it  should  be  considered  as  highly  spoiled  and  accordingly  con- 
demned, or  after  a  previous  boiling  it  should  be  admitted  for  consumption. 
The  latter  precaution  is  necessary  from  a  veterinary  police  standpoint,  for 
preventing  the  spread  of  bacteria. 

(b)  Chicken  pest  is  an  acute  contagious,  infectious  disease,  which 
almost  exclusively  occurs  in  chickens,  very  rarely  in  pigeons  and  water- 
fowl, and  terminates  fatally  within  2  to  4  days.  The  cause  is  an  ultra- 
microscopic  filterable  virus. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  the  living  animal  there  are  noted  dull- 
ness, lethargy,  dark-red  coloration  of  the  comb  and  wattles,  slimy  dis- 
charges from  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  occasionally  profuse  diarrhea. 
The  anatomical  findings  in  quickly  terminating  cases  may  be  limited  to 
several  punctiform  hemorrhages  on  the  pericardium,  breastbone,  and 
peritoneum.  Otherwise  there  is  a  collection  of  mucus  in  the  nasal  and 
buccal  cavities,  pulmonary  hyperemia,  pericarditis,  hemorrhages  on  the 
mucous  membranes  and  under  the  serous  membranes,  intestinal  catarrh, 
fibrinous  exudate  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  salpingitis,  cloudy  swelling  of 
the  liver,  edema  on  chest  and  neck. 

For  the  recognition  of  chicken  pest  it  is  always  advisable  to  inocu- 
late a  pigeon  and  a  chicken;  if  the  chicken  pest  is  present,  death  occurs 
in  from  12-48  hours.  Besides,  the  absence  of  the  causative  bacillus  of 
chicken  cholera  -and  absence  of  a  marked  intestinal  inflammation  are 
decisive. 

Regarding  the  judging,  the  same  principles  should  be  applied  as  in 
chicken  cholera. 


350     Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 

For  chicken  cholera  and  chicken  pest  compulsory  notification  was 
established  by  proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  in  1903. 

(c)  Chicken  diphtheria  is  an  infectious  disease  of  chickens  and  pig- 
eons running  an  acute  or  chronic  course,  and  which  is  produced  by  the 
bacillus  diphtherias  avium. 

Lesions. — Yellowish-white  membranous  deposits  on  the  tongue,  pal- 
ate, and  buccal  mucous  membrane  appear,  and  in  advanced  affections  also 
croupous  diphtheritic  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  eye, 
the  nose,  the  deeper  air  passages  and  the  intestinal  canal.  In  the  latter 
cases,  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  anemia,  cloudy  swellings  of  the 
parenchyma,  and  hemorrhages  on  the  heart. 

Judgment. — Although  Piorkowski  has  recently  declared  chicken 
diphtheria  identical  with  human  diphtheria,  still  there  are  no  deleterious 
effects  observed  on  human  health  from  ingestion  of  the  meat ;  neither  are 
there  any  observations  recorded  of  transmission  of  the  disease  from 
chicken  to  man.  Whether  the  meat  should  be  considered  spoiled,  depends 
on  its  objective  changes. 

(d)  Tuberculosis  of  fowl  should  be  judged  for  the  present  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  mammalia  (page  267),  although  there  is  no  pathogen - 
icity  of  the  bacilli  of  fowl  tuberculosis  for  man    and    for    certain    other 
domestic  animals. 

Finally  there  should  be  mentioned  fowl  arthritis  with  changes  of  the 
joints,  and  calcareous  incrustations  in  the  skin,  kidneys,  and  serous  mem- 
branes. For  the  test  of  uric  acid  deposits  the  murexid  reaction  is  applied 
as  follows :  The  concrements  are  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  nitric 
acid,  evaporated  by  drying  to  an  onion-red  mass,  which,  on  the  addition 
of  a  drop  of  ammonia,  gives  a  beautiful  purple-red  color.  The  meat  of 
animals  severely  affected  with  arthritis  must  be  considered  as  spoiled 
food.  Egg  concrements  in  the  body  cavity,  which  is  occasionally  observed 
in  hens,  are  of  no  importance. 

The  general  judging  of  fowl  meat  does  not  deviate  from  the  gen- 
eral principles  described  for  other  flesh. 

4.     Postmortem  Changes  of  Fowl  Meat 

Borchmann  called  attention  to  the  unfavorable  influence  on  goose 
meat  through  long  storing  of  undrawn  geese  in  refrigerators  and  cold- 
storage  houses  (ice  geese,  Russian  geese).  The  objective  deterioration 
of  the  appearance  of  such  geese  consists  in  a  whitish-yellow  to  a  whitish- 
green  discoloration  of  the  skin  ("cadaver  color''),  which  after  thawing  out 
becomes  oily,  yellow,  leather-like  and  tightly  attached.  Besides,  there 
may  be  present  hypostasis  of  the  skin,  of  the  lower  abdomen  and  rump. 
The  muscles  of  cold-storage  geese  are  red-violet  or  deep  dark  red,  and 
when  roasted  appear  dark  brown  to  brownish-black  and  tough.  The  fat 


Fowl,  Game,  Fish,  etc.  351 

of  a  cold-storage  goose  is  oily,  does  not  stiffen  and  deposits  a  gray,  gritty 
sediment ;  its  taste  is  rancid  or  musty.  Due  to  these  characteristics,  cold- 
storage  geese  are,  under  all  conditions,  of  inferior  quality,  and  besides  they 
may  also  be  in  a  highly  spoiled  condition  and  consequently  unfit  for 
consumption. 

Bacon  also  pointed  out  the  dangers  of  long  storing  of  undrawn  fowl 
in  cold-storage  houses. 

B,     Game 

•»  . 

The  meat  of  game  is  characterized  in  general  by  its  high  blood  content,  which 
favors  its  decomposition  when  unsuitably  kept,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
meat  of  game  resists  putrefaction  for  comparatively  a  long  time. 

Although  game  should,  as  a  rule,  discJose  shot  wounds,  nevertheless  wild  fowl 
can  be  seen  occasionally  which  were  caught  in  traps  or  nets,  and  only  display  traces 
of  strangulation.  The  shot  wounds  which  are  produced  post  mortem  have  no 
bloody  infiltrated  borders. 

1.     Age 

Regarding  the  age  which  sometimes  comes  into  consideration  in 
haired  game,  principally  in  rabbits,  deer,  fallow  deer,  roe,  and  boars  Nie- 
bel  established  the  following  fixed  points : 

In  young  rabbits  the  thorax  can  be  easily  pressed  in ;  and  in  compressing  the 
posterior  branches  of  the  maxillae,  the  two  middle  incisors  spread  apart  as  wide  as 
the  thickness  of  a  finger.  The  hair  of  a  young  rabbit,  especially  on  the  abdomen, 
is  softer  than  that  of  an  old  animal.  The  aponeuroses  of  the  lumbar  region  are, 
in  the  young  rabbit,  grayish-white,  thin,  transparent;  in  the  old,  yellowish-white 
and  not  transparent.  The  ribs  of  young  animals  break  easily;  those  of  the  old  do 
not.  The  pelvic  symphysis  is  cartilaginous  in  young  animals ;  in  old  rabbits  it  is 
ossified.  The  meat  of  old  rabbits  is  dark  red,  while  in  young  rabbits  it  is  pale  and 
grayish-red. 

In  deer,   the  question  occasionally  arises  whether  it  is  a  calf  or  a  full-grown 
deer.     According  to  Whering,  an  alleged  deer  which  possesses  less  than  six  molar 
teeth  in  each  row,  and  accordingly  is  less  than  16  to  18  months  old,  must  be  consid 
ered  a  calf.     Whering  indicates  the  changes  of  teeth  in  the  roe,  common  stag,  and 
fallow  deer  in   the   following  exhibit: 

Roe  Common  stag  Fallow  deer 

The  center    incisors   appear  after. . .       6-8  months            10  months  15  months 

The   inside  laterals   appear  after....    10-11  months             13  months  17  months 

The  outside  laterals  appear  after....          12  months             15  months  20  months 

The  corners  appear  after 13  months             22  months  18  months 

The  premolars   appear  after 14-15  months            24  months  30  months 

The  young  of  the  wild  boar  have  at  3  to  4  months  3  pairs  of  temporary 
incisors,  3  temporary  molars  in  each  row,  and  temporary  tusks.  When  8  to  9 
months,  they  have  besides,  one  permanent  molar  in  each  vrow  and  the  tusks.  A 
shoat  of  20  months  has  3  pairs  of  permanent  incisors,  the  wolf-teeth,  5  permanent 
molars  in  each  row,  and  the  temporary  tusks  are  replaced  by  permanent  ones.  In 
boars  and  sows  2.y2  years  old  the  last  permanent  molar  is  also  present. 


352    Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 


For  wild  fowl    Niebel  gives  the  following  signs  of  age : 

An  old  partridge  is  distinguished  from  a  young  one  by  the  stronger-developed 
structure,  gray  to  grayish-blue  legs,  which  in  the  young  are  more  yellow,  and  by 
yellowish-brown  feathers  on  the  head,  which  in  the  young  are  gray.  But  after 
4  months  the  young  partridge  also  has  yellowish-brown  head-feathers,  and,  there- 
fore after  that  age  only  the  outside  quill-feathers  show  indications  by  which  to 
decide,  their  ends  being  pointed  in  young  partridges,  while  in  the  old  they  are 
rounded. 

In  the  mountain  partridge  the  age  is  determined  by  the  extreme  outside 
quill-feather. 

In  the  woodcock,  heathcock,  heathpout,  and 'white  grouse  the  extreme  outside 
quill  decides,  together  with  the  breastbone  and  spurs. 

The  spur  of  a  young  pheasant  cock  is  short  and  stubby;  that  of  an  old  bird  is 
10  mm.  long,  and  7  mm.  wide;  in  a  cock  about  10  months  old  the  spur  is  only 
6  mm.  long. 

The  breastbone  is  flexible  in  earliest  youth;  it  can  be  broken  in  young  birds; 
in  old  ones,  however,  it  is  broken  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  feathers,  until 
the  second  year,  are  of  a  dark  color  tint,  which  remains  permanently  in  the  hen ; 
while  in  the  cock  at  2  years,  the  variegated .  feathering  and  long  tail-feathers 
develop. 

In  wild  geese  and  ducks    the  firmness  of  the  trachea  is  decisive. 

In  young  bustards  the  end  of  the  chestbone  is  flexible.  In  snipe,  quail,  and 
others  the  age  is  of  no  importance. 

2.     Sex 

The  establishment  of  sex  is  occasionally  of  some  importance  in  the  evis- 
cerated deer. 


Fig.  152, 


Fig.  153 


Fig.  152.  Pelvis  of  a  doe  with  a  front  view  of  the  os  pubis  and  a  section 
through  the  symphysis. 

Fig.  153.  Pelvis  of  a  fallow  deer  with  a  front  view  of  the  os  pubis  and  a  section 
through  the  symphysis. 


UNIVERSITY 

v    ~      °F 


Fowl,  Game,  Fish,  etc.  353 

When  the  sexual  organs  are  removed  and  the  cranial  covering  sawed  off,  the 
pelvis  is  decisive,  as  indicated  by  Whering  and  Schaff,  in  the  following: 

The  pelvis  of  the  doe  (Fig.  152),  when  viewed  from  above  appears  broader, 
more  spacious,  less  slender  than  the  pelvis  of  the  buck  (Fig.  153)  ;  the  distance  of 
the  outside  angles  of  the  ileum  from  each  other  is  as  50:40.  On  the  pubic  sym- 
physis the  pelvis  of  the  buck  is  thick  and  like  a  protuberance;  that  of  the  doe  is 
thin,  flat  in  front,  and  slightly  hollowed.  It  is  emphasized  by  Whering  that  the 
appearance  of  the  symphysis  can  only  be  utilized  with  a  degree  of  certainty  in 
older  deer,  as  all  the  young  individuals  have  a  thickened  protuberant  symphysis ; 
accordingly,  Malkmus  recommends  cutting  out  the  halves  of  the  pelvic  bones  and 
boiling  them. 

The  common  stag  and  fallow  deer  show  also  similar  sexual  differences  in 
the  pelvis. 

Regarding  the  value  of  the  meat  of  both  sexes  in  haired  and  feathered  game, 
the  meat  of  male  animals  is  preferred  in  general  on  account  of  its  stronger  taste  of 
game.  During  estrum  the  meat  of  deer  is  supposed  to  have  a  repulsive  taste 
similar  to  that  of  the  buck. 

3,     Diseases 

The  important  diseases  which  occur  in  game  have  already  been  men- 
tioned in  Chapter  VII.  Anthrax,  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  and  animal 
parasites,  measles,  trichina  in  wild  boars,  as  well  as  the  so-called  rabbit 
measles  (Cysticercus  pisiformis)  should  be  especially  indicated.  Regarding 
measles  of  deer  and  reindeer,  see  pages  239  and  240.  Strongylides  in 
the  lungs  and  intestines  of  rabbits  may  produce  severe  affections  and  may 
result  in  numerous  fatalities. 

4.     Postmortem  Changes 

Regarding  post-mortem  changes  (page  327),  no  concessions  should 
be  made  by  the  sanitary  police  to  the  current  conception  of  "land  flavor." 
In  animals  not  eviscerated  the  intestinal  putrefaction  soon  passes  over  to 
the  abdominal  walls,  and  discolors  them  green  or  bluish-green.  The 
appearance  of  the  eyes  is  also  an  indication  of  the  freshness  of  game;  if 
they  are  markedly  sunken,  it  is  then  quite  certain  the  game  was  shot  sev- 
eral days  previously. 

Regarding  the  judging  of  meat  of  game  there  is  nothing  to  be  added 
to  what  has  already  been  described  regarding  other  flesh. 

a  Fish 

The  killing  of  fish  should  be  preceded  by  stunning  with  a  blow  on 
the  head. 

Although  in  the  water  of  moderate  climates  there  occur  no  fish  the 
meat  of  which  in-  itself  would  be  poisonous,1  yet  it  should  be  remembered, 
that  the  roe  of  perch  and  occasionally  also  that  from  pike,  herring,  carp, 


1  For  further  particulars   see  Robert,  on  "Poisonous  Fish  and  Fish   Poisons.'' 
Vortag,  Stuttgart,  1905. 
24 


354     Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 

trench,  and  breem  may  contain  during  the  spawning  time,  cholera-like 
acting  poisons  (barbel  cholera,  signatera). 

The  raw  meat  and  blood  of  the  river  eel  and  sea  eel,  as  well  as  of  the  lamprey, 
contain  a  tox-albumen  (ichthyotoxicon)  which  is  destroyed  by  cooking.  In  the 
lamprey  there  may  also  appear  a  poison  in  the  skin,  which  remains  active  even 
when  the  fish  are  boiled  to  a  soup.  Some  of  the  fish  also  possess  poison  glands  in 
the  mouth  and  skin ;  in  the  latter  class  are  included  the  so-called  "poison  stingers'* 
(dragon  fish,  sea  scorpion).  For  distinguishing  fresh  fish  from  stale  and  decom- 
posed fish,  the  following  fixed  points  are  of  service : 


Condition 

Scales 

Eyes 

Gills 

Body  in  general 
and  meat 

Spec,    gravity 

Fresh 

Glittering, 

Standing  out 

Gills,     lids 

Solid;    placing 

Sink  in  water. 

free     of 

and  mouth 

the  fish  hori- 

slime, firm- 

closed. 

zontally      o  n 

1  y      adhe- 

the   hand,    it 

rent. 

does  not  bend. 

•Meat     firm, 

elastic,     tight 

on  bones. 

N  o  t     fresh, 

More  or  less  Red   border- 

Lids  open  or 

Body  bends  eas- 

Swim    on     the 

stale    for 

easily     re- 

ed,    sunk- 

can be  eas- 

ily,  especially 

water. 

some  time. 

movable, 

en;  cornea 

ily     open- 

at     the      tail 

si  ightly 

cloudy. 

ed;      gills 

end;      occa- 

slimy or 

pale,     yel- 

sionally bloat- 

smeary. 

low,  dirty, 

ing  of  the  ab- 

or grayish- 

domen,  which 

red,     cov- 

may   be    blu- 

ered   with 

ish  discolored. 

the      same 

Finger  im- 

kind    of 

pressions    are 

fluid,  odor 

easily     made, 

disagreea  - 

and     remain  ; 

ble. 

meat   is    soft, 

. 

can   be   easily 

removed  from 

the  bone. 

Putrefied... 

Very     loose, 

Breaking- 

Very  off-col- 

Withered,   flab- 

Swim    on     the 

covered      down;  are 

ored  ;    ex- 

by, soft,  pale, 

\vater 

with       a      frequently 

tremely  of- 

bloated.     The 

s  m  e  a  r  y 

removed. 

f  e  n  s  i  v  e 

meat  is  sloppy. 

slime  -  like 

odor. 

mass     of 

disagreea- 

ble odor. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  carp,  the  age  of  fish  is  not  regarded.     To  estab- 
lish it  a  scale  from  the  side  should  be  cleaned  in  alcohol  and  held  against  the  light. 


Fowl,  Game,  Fish,  etc.  355 

If  in  the  center  of  this  scale  a  light  point  is  noticed,  the  carp  is  then  of  one  sum- 
mer. In  a  two-summer  carp,  the  central  point  is  noticed,  surrounded  by  a  ring; 
that  of  three  summers  has  two  rings,  and  so  forth. 

Deceptions  in  Commerce  with  Fish  Meat. — Occasionally  a  species  of  cod  fish 
(Merluccius  vulgaris)  is  used  for  sea  salmon  (Raebiger).  According  to  Glage 
perch  (Caraux  vulgaris)  should  not  be  sold  for  genuine  sprats.  Gadus  pollachius 
goes  as  Spanish  salmon.  The  meat  of  the  thorn-hound  (Acanthias  vulgaris)  is 
offered  as  sea  eel,  and  sea  salmon,  as  well  as  that  of  the  common  nose-fish 
(Chondrostoma  nasus),  a  cheap  sweet-water  fish,  is  sold  as  mackerel,  according  to 
Rehmet. 

The  substitutions  of  sprats  for  sardines  or  anchovies  in  box  conserves  is 
determined,  according  to  Henseval,  by  a  spiny  comb  on  the  abdominal  side  of  the 
sprats,  which  is  characteristic  of  these  fish,  and  which  can  be  perceived  by  passing 
the  finger  over  the  body  in  the  direction  of  the  head. 

Of  the  diseases  of  fish,  the  following  should  be  referred  to : 

(a)  Nodular  disease  (morbus  nodulosus,  fish  pox)  commonly  occurs  in  barbs, 
carp,  tench,  perch,  pike,  and  red-eye.  It  is  produced  by  myxosporidiae  (myxobolus). 
The  latter  are  located  in  the  epithelia  of  the  skin,  muscles,  gills,  and  in  the  internal 
organs,  and  produce  cyst-like  tumors,  swellings  and  abscesses.  In  the  rump  mus- 
cles of  various  species  of  salmon,  cysts  may  appear  the  size  of  hazelnuts  produced 
by  myxosporidiae  (Henneguya  Zschokki)  which  displace  the  muscle  and  become 
visible  externally  in  the  form  of  boils.  The  meat  has  a  yellowish  color,  becomes 
soft,  jelly-like,  and  tastes  bitter. 

(b)  Fish    Measles. — The   plerocercoid   of  the   bothriocephalus    latus    (broad 
tapeworm  of  man)  lives  in  the  muscles  and  the  various  viscera  of  the  pike,  turbot, 
perch,    trout,    grayling,    salmon,    and    its    varieties.     In 

Germany  these  measles  occur  principally  in  fish  from 
the  Ost  Sea,  and  from  the  East  Prussian  Seas,  but  may 
be  also  observed  in  those  from  the  Starnberger  Sea. 

These  worm-like  plerocercoid  are  8-30  mm.  long,  not 
encapsulated,  and  lie  mostly  slightly  curved  with  their 
grayish-white  indistinctly  annulated  bodies.  They  are 
easily  found  on  the  pyloric  appendices  of  the  turbot; 
they  may  also  occur  in  the  caviar  of  pike. 

Cysts  of  3.5  mm.  long  and  1.5  mm.  broad,  containing 
the  larva  of  taenia  tetrarhynchus  were  found  in  the  meat  f 

of  codfish  and  halibut,  but  they  are  harmless  for  man  \ ron thmuculamre  of 
(Bergmann).  the  pike;  a,  head  extend- 

(c)  The    young    form    of   the   ascaris    capsularia,      ed;  b,  head  drawn  in. 
described    by    Leuckart    as    filaria    piscium,    lives    as    a 

2-5  cm.  long  encapsulated  roundworm  in  the  meat  of  various  salt-water  fish,  and 
especially  of  the  gadus  callarias  (a  species  of  codfish).  Cooking  the  meat  facili- 
tates their  finding,  as  in  the  process  the  worms  turn  red-brown  in  color. 

(d)  Muscular  distomes  of  various  kinds  are  not  infrequent  in  fish. 

(e)  The  young  state  of  the  distomum   felineum   which  produces  cancer-like 
affections  of  the  bile  passages  in  the  liver  of  man,  is  supposed  to  live,  according 
to  Askanazy,  in  the  red-eye   (Leuciscus  rutilus)  ;  however,  thus  far  only  the  eggs 
of  the  parasite  have  been  found  in  this  fish. 

(fj     The  various  infectious  diseases  of  fish  can  be  left  unconsidered,  as  the 
fish  with  such  affections  spoil  rapidly  and  are  seldom  placed  on  the  market.     For 


356     Chap.  IX.     Examination  and  Judgment  of  Prepared  Products 

details,  see  Hofer's  Handbook  of  the  Diseases  of  Fish,  and  Ostertag's  Handbook 
of  Meat  Inspection. 

According  to  Robert,  the  bacillus  piscicidus  agilis  (Sieber)  produces  a  septi- 
cemic  affection  in  carp,  which  may  also  become  injurious  to  man. 

Judgment  of  Diseased  Fish. — Fish  with  bothriocephalis  measles  are  injurious  to 
health.  In  all  other  diseases  the  meat  is,  as  a  rule,  to  be  considered  as  highly 
spoiled. 

Regarding  post-mortem  changes  in  fish  meat,  it  is  safe  to  emphasize  that  such 
conditions  appear  rapidly,  and  that  in  putrid  fish  poisons  develop  which  act  more 
intensely  than  the  putrefactive  toxins  in  meat  of  warm-blooded  animals.  The  fish 
poison,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  is  similar  to  sausage  poison,  and  appears  to 
be  strongest  at  the  beginning  of  putrefaction. 

D,     Crustaceans,  Mollusks,  and  Amphibians 

Crabs  and  lobsters  should  only  be  offered  for  sale  alive,  as  they  spoil  quickly 
when  boiled.  Crabs  boiled  after  they  have  died,  have  distended  bodies,  and  the 
caudal  fin  is  not  rolled  in.  A  lobster  which  has  been  boiled  shortly  before  death, 
has  the  caudal  end  turned  toward  the  abdominal  side,  and  can  be  readily  moved 
up  and  down  ("Wippen").  If  the  lobster  be  boiled  some  time  after  death,  the 
meat  of  the  caudal  portion  cannot  be  taken  out  intact;  it  crumbles  between  the 
fingers. 

Of  diseases  there  should  be  mentioned  the  "spotted  disease"  which  produces 
black  spots  on  the  shell,  and  is  caused  by  oidium  astaci,  and  the  crab  plague  found 
by  Hofer  to  be  produced  by  the  bacterium  pestis  astaci  in  the  muscles  is  also 
pathogenic  for  fish.  Mycosis  astacina  is  accompanied  by  milky  discoloration  of  the 
under  side  and  mortification  of  single  limbs  of  crabs. 

Canned  lobster  is  always  alkaline,  even  in  an  unobjectionable  fresh  state. 
Adulterations  occur  with  the  palimiurus  vulgaris.  As  these  shell  crabs  have  no 
claws,  the  canned  products  are  often  sold  as  "lobsters  without  claws." 

Occasionally  the  inferior  quality  North  Sea  crab  is  boiled  in  fuchsin  water  and 
sold  as  Ost  Sea  crab.  The  coloring  is  then  spotted,  and  the  eggs  under  the  abdo- 
men are  bright  red ;  by  boiling  crabs  in  alcohol  the  artificial  coloring  matter  may  be 
extracted.  Furthermore,  the  zoological  signs  should  be  considered. 

Dead  oysters  show  open  shells,  and  at  the  beginning  of  decomposition  a  black 
ring  appears  on  their  inner  surface.  They  very  soon  develop  a  disagreeable  odor. 
According  to  Bardet,  all  oysters  are  diseased  during  summer.  They  show  a  milky 
appearance,  and  their  liver  is  greatly  enlarged,  gray,  and  white.  To  obtain  a  green 
color,  oysters  are  placed  in  a  copper  acetate  solution,  whereby  they  turn  grass-green 
but  not  dark  green.  If  vinegar  is  poured  over  such  oysters  an  inserted  iron  needle 
will  show  a  metallic  copper  luster,  while,  with  the  addition  of  ammonia,  the  oysters 
turn  a  dark  blue  (Springfield). 

That  oysters  may  be  carriers  of  typhoid  bacilli  has  been  repeatedly 
established. 

The  common  mussel  (clams)  is  dead  when  the  shells  do  not  close  after  they 
are  taken  out  of  the  water.  Certain  mussels,  especially  those  from  stagnant  water, 
may  contain  poisons,  the  development  and  nature  of  which  is  still  obscure. 
Mytilotoxin  occurs  principally  in  the  liver,  and  in  man  produces  the  poisoning 
called  mytilismus,  which  belongs  to  the  ichthyosismtis  (page  364).  Poisonous 
mussels  are  supposed  to  produce  a  sweetish  nauseating  bouillon  odor;  they  are  also 
less  pigmented,  and  their  shells  are  easier  broken  and  are  broader  than  those  which 


Crustaceans,  Mollusks,  and  Amphybians  357 

are  poisonous.  The  liver  is  larger  and  more  mellow.  Water  in  which  poisonous 
mussels  are  boiled  appears  bluish;  that  of  healthy  mussels  is  light.  The  meat  of 
poisonous  mussels  is  yellow,  that  of  the  nonpoisonous  is  whitish.  Placed  in 
alcohol,  poisonous  mussels  color  it  a  strong  golden-yellow ;  the  nonpoisonous 
scarcely  make  any  noticeable  change. 

According  to  Salkowski,  if  this  solution  is  heated  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid  in  a  reagent  glass,  the  poisonous  solution  turns  a  grayish-green,  while  the  non- 
poisonous  remains  almost  colorless. 

In  snails,  turtles,  and  frogs'  legs,  special  changes  and  injurious  effects  were  not 
observed. 

Judgment. — On  account  of  the  great  danger  which  diseased,  poisonous,  or 
decomposing  crustaceans  and  shell  fish  produce  to  human  health  (mytilismus),  such 
food  should  be  positively  withheld  from  human  consumption. 


X,     Meat  Poisonings 


In  this  chapter  special  diseases  of  animals  are  not  treated,  nor  are 
injurious  effects  of  meat,  but  more  particularly  diseases  of  men  which 
appear  as  a  result  of  meat  consumption,  and  which  on  account  of  the 
symptomatic  picture  are  designated  poisonings. 

Therefore,  while  there  is  nothing  which  could  be  supplemented  here 
in  relation  to  meat  inspection  proper,  these  meat  poisonings  cannot  be 
left  undiscussed,  as  they  are  of  great  importance  to  meat  hygiene,  and 
their  etiological  relations  are  noted  partly  in  important  diseases  of  ani- 
mals and  partly  in  particular  changes  of  the  meat. 

Poisonings  which  are  to  be  traced  to  consumption  of  meat  can  be 
arranged,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  into  three  groups  with  reference 
to  their  etiology — namely,  meat  poisoning  as  a  result  of  micro-organisms 
which  belong  to  the  group  of  the  bacillus  enteritidis;  meat  poisonings 
through  the  bacterium  coli  and  the  proteus  group ;  and  botulismus. 

1,     Meat  Poisoning  as  a  Result  of  Bac,  Enteritidis 

The  nature  of  meat  poisonings  which  are  produced  by  the  group  of 
bac.  enteritidis,  consists  either  in  an  intoxication  of  the  human  body  with 
chemical  poisons  (bacterial  toxins,  toxalbumens,  toxigenic  substances), 
developed  by  the  micro-organisms  in  the  animal  body ;  or  else  in  an  infec- 
tion with  the  bacteria  themselves ;  or  finally  in  a  united  action  of  toxic  sub- 
stances and  the  bacilli  of  infection. 

In  so-called  paratyphoid  meat  poisoning  there  enters  into  consideration  the 
action  of  the  metabolic  products  of  bacteria  which  in  themselves  are  not  poisonous, 
but  at  the  same  time  increase  the  action  and  aggressiveness  of  the  bacilli. 

The  character  of  the  diseases  developed  in  this  manner  in  man 
varies  extraordinarily.  According  to  van  Ermengem,  the  symptoms  in 
general  show  an  acute  course,  and  develop  as  an  attack  of  cholerine,  chol- 
era nostras,  or  an  inflammatory  gastro-enteritis  (febris  gastrica),  some- 
times accompanied  by  muscular  weakness  or  ataxy.  The  symptoms  may, 
therefore,  act  delusively  in  a  typhoid  condition.  Frequently,  however, 
they  can  be  hardly  distinguished  from  a  gastro-intestinal  catarrh. 

Convalescence  is  always  slow ;  relapses  and  even  fever  of  two  months' 
duration  (Neter)  may  occur.  Mortality  hardly  exceeds  2  to  5  per  cent. 

Without  doubt    the  various  forms  of  the  disease  are  greatly  influ- 
enced by  the  nature  and  intensity  of  the  poisons  in  consumed  meat,  by 
their  quantity,  preparation,  etc. 
358 


Meat  Poisoning  as  a  Result  of  Bac.  Enteritidis  359 

Accordingly,  since  there  does  not  exist  a  uniform  typical  clinical  pic- 
ture in  meat  poisoning,  it  would  be  possible  to  establish  a  diagnosis  of 
poisoning  by  meat  only  by  connecting  a  concrete  affection  with  corre- 
sponding complex  symptoms,  together  with  the  history  of  consumption  of 
certain  meat  foods,  and  in  the  absence  of  other  kinds  of  disease-producing 
influences.  That  suspicion  of  meat  poisoning  is  justifiable  if  symptoms 
occur  soon  after  the  ingestion  of  meat  appears  self-evident,  but  the  time 
of  incubation  may  also  extend  over  several  days. 

Causes. — Based  on  extensive  statistics,  it  can  be  stated  that  llie  septic 
and  pyemic  affections  with  their  various  forms  in  food  animals  (page  293) 
are  principally  the  causes  of  meat  poisoning  proper.  But  as  these  affec- 
tions of  animals  result  very  frequently  in  their  emergency  slaughter,  it, 
therefore,  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  by  far  the  most  meat-poisoning 
cases  may  be  traced  back  to  emergency-slaughtered  animals. 

To  what  extent  the  bacteria  of  the  enteritidis  group  play  a  part  in 
the  development  of  septic  and  pyemic  affections,  has  not  yet  been 
explained.  From  a  diseased  food  animal,  either  the  entire  meat  may  con- 
tain injurious  properties  or  the  latter  man  be  confined  only  to  single 
parts  of  the  viscera  of  the  animal.  In  both  instances  the  virulence  of  the 
meat  or  viscera  may  be  widely  different,  and  accordingly  the  degree  of 
the  poisoning  may  vary  greatly.  The  virulence  of  the  meat  depends  on 
the  severity  and  nature  af  the  affection  of  the  food  animal  at  the  time 
of  slaughter  and  the  bleeding  of  the  animal  as  well  as  on  the  nature  of 
storing  and  the  preparation  of  the  meat. 

With  reference  to  storing,  it  must  be  accepted  that  under  certain 
conditions  (heat,  dampness)  the  post-mortem  poisonous  properties  of 
meat  are  further  increased  by  continuing  the  activities  of  the  causal  agents 
of  the  infection.  Thus  Basenau,  Poels  and  Dhont  have  proved  that 
the  species  of  bacteria  which  stand  very  closely  to  the  bacterium  enteri- 
tidis find  in  the  muscular  tissues  very  suitable  growing  conditions  for 
a  luxuriant  development,  even  at  a  low  temperature  (10°  C.).  The 
preparation  of  the  meat  plays  an  important  part,  inasmuch  as  experience 
has  shown  that  the  consumption  of  raw  meat,  as  a  rule,  results  in  more 
severe  disturbances  than  from  boiled  and  roasted  preparations ;  for  the 
exciters  of  infection  which  exist  in  the  meat  proper  are  to  a  great  extent 
destroyed,  and  thereby  the  danger  which  threatens  human  beings  through 
the  multiplication  of  these  causal  factors  is  averted  by  their  incorporation 
into  the  digestive  apparatus.  That  the  chemical  poisonous  substances 
(toxins  of  the  bac.  enteritidis)  which  are  present  in  the  meat,  are  not 
destroyed  by  culinary  boiling  or  roasting,  has  been  frequently  established 
by  experience  (see  below)  ;  and  this  serves  as  a  proof  that  the  nature  of 
a  large  number  of  poisonings  by  meat  is  an  intoxication.  It  is  readily 
apparent  that  these  toxic  substances  may  be  weakened  through  the  prepa- 


360  Chap.  X.     Meat  Poisonings 

ration  of  the  meat  by  soaking  or  through  the  formation  of  chemical  com- 
binations, which  at  the  same  time  causes  an  attenuation  of  the  poison  in 
the  meat.  It  has  been  shown  by  careful  observation  that  in  certain  cases 
the  meat  broth  contained  prominent  toxic  actions. 

Inasmuch  as  individual  organs,  especially  the  liver  and  kidneys, 
proved  to  be  poisonous  while  the  meat  proper  and  the  muscular  structure 
of  the  same  animal  proved  to  be  harmless,  it  must  be  accepted  that  these 
organs  were  either  exclusively  the  seats  of  the  toxic  elements,  or  by  virtue 
of  the  physical  functions  they  absorbed  larger  quantities  of  the  poisonous 
substances. 

Finally,  concerning  cases  in  which  the  poisonous  quality  of  meat 
obtained  its  virulence  only  on  post  mortem,  this  becomes  readily  com- 
prehensive by  the  above-mentioned  observations  of  Basenau,  Poels,  and 
Dhont,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  the  bac.  enteritidis  occurs  quite  exten- 
sively distributed  in  putrefying  organic  material  and  also  in  many  car- 
casses (Gartner). 

According  to  recent  observations,  cases  of  poisoning  resulting  from 
the  ingestion  of  fish-meat  and  oysters  (Netter,  Herdmann  and  Boyce. 
Vivaldi  and  Rodella),  as  well  as  affections  of  so-called  paratyphus  of 
unknown  cause,  belong  to  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  bacillus  enteritidis. 

Etiology  of  the  Toxicity  of  Meat. — The  bacteria  of  the  group  of 
bacillus  enteritidis,  which  produce  the  poisonous  qualities  of  the  meat, 
possess,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  the  following  characteristics : 

1.  Short  bacteria,  very  frequently  of  ovoid  form  (coccus  bacilli)  of  0,2  to  0,4^, 
usually  arranged  in  pairs;  sometimes  they  stain  irregularly,  especially  in  somewhat 
older  gelatin  cultures,  as  well  as  in  peritoneal  and  pleuritic  exudates,  in  the  liver, 
etc.,  so  that  they  resemble  the  bacteria  of  hemorrhagic  septicaemia. 

2.  They  do  not  stain  by  Gram's  method. 

3.  They  are  quite  motile  similar  to  the  typhoid  bacillus,  and  possess  peripherally 
arranged  flagella,  4-8  ^  long,  but  sometimes  they  are  more  than  10-12  ^  long. 

4.  The  superficial  colonies  on  gelatin  are  quite  polymorphous ;  frequently  they 
are  only  slightly  distinguished  from  those  of  the  bact.  coli,  and  while  they  are  in 
general  more  transparent,  they  are    less   lobate,   and    show    usually   a   transparent 
border. 

5.  They  do  not  form  indol,  or  at  the  most,  they  produce  it  only  in  extremely 
small  quantities. 

6.  They  do  not  coagulate  milk;  but  after  about  10  days  reduce  somewhat  its 
opaqueness.     In   fact  it  renders  the  milk  slightly   transparent,   which  at  the   same 
time  takes  up  a  yellowish  color  similar  to  coffee  and  milk    and  becomes  markedly 
alkaline. 

7.  They  always  ferment  dextrose  with  abundant  gas  formation,  and  also  gen- 
erally   decompose    the    other    kinds    of    sugars — lactose,    galactose,    maltose,    cane- 
sugar,  etc. — and  even  glycerin  with  gas  formation,  excepting  certain  varieties  of  the 
organisms,  as  for  instance,  those  described  by  Fischer  and  Durham,  which  do  not 
affect  lactose. 


Meat  Poisoning  as  a  Result  of  Bac.  Enteritidis  361 

8.  They  cloud  bouillon  very  quickly,  and  a  membrane  forms  on  the  surface 
which  tears   readily,  but  no  distinguishing  odor  is  communicated  to  the  nutritive 
media. 

9.  On  potatoes  the  growth  is  frequently  barely  visible;   in  other   cases   it   is 
quite  thick,  dirty  yellowish,  or  of  a  brownish  development. 

10.  The  quite  luxuriant  growth  in  Petruschki's  litmus  milk  effects  no  change 
in  the  color,  nor  is  there  an  acid  production. 

11.  A  more  or  less  pronounced   formation  of  fluorescence  takes  place  in  the 
neutral-red  agar  of  Rothberger  with  a  0,3  per  cent,  addition  of  dextrose,  the  nutri- 
tive substance  is  discolored  after  18  to  24  hours,  and  gas  is  produced. 

12.  On  the  nutritive  media  of  Drigalski-Conradi,  bluish  colonies  develop  after 
16  to  18  hours,  which  are  somewhat  larger  and  less  transparent  than  those  of  the 
typhoid  bacilli. 

These  micro-organisms  further  distinguish  themselves  from  the  more  or  less 
related  species  with  which  they  might  at  first  be  confused;  or,  for  instance,  with 
certain  varieties  of  the  bacterium  coli,  by  their  great  virulence  and  by 'their  char- 
acteristic production  of  toxins,  which  are  resistant  to  high  temperatures.  These 
poisons  penetrate  the  nutritive  media  and  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  filtrate 
which  is  free  of  the  organisms. 

The  mode  of  infection  by  the  bacillus  enteritidis  and  its  passage  into 
food  animals  cannot  be  taken  up  here.  It  should  be  considered,  how- 
ever, that  a  pollution  of  the  latter  may  occur  through  contact  with  the 
bacilli  without  the  presence  of  an  infection  in  the  animal  itself ;  the 
latter,  however,  does  occur  in  rare  instances. 

The  paratyphus  bacilli  may  be  left  unconsidered  here 

That  the  bacillus  suipestifer,  notwithstanding  its  relation  to  the  paratyphus 
bacilli  and  to  the  enteritidis  group,  does  not  belong  to  the  meat-poisoning  bacteria 
has  been  established  by  C.  Joest. 

De  Nobele  convinced  himself,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  of  the  fact  that  the 
muscular  juice  of  affected  animals,  which  are  infected  with  micro-organisms  of  the 
bacillus  enteritidis  group,  possesses  a  pronounced  quality  of  agglutination  for  the 
latter.  According  to  this  investigation,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  test  the  muscle 
plasma  in  quite  strong  concentrations  (i:  10  to  1:20)  with  each  of  the  representa- 
tives of  the  two  groups  of  micro-organisms  which  he  established.  As  the  expressed 
muscular  juice  of  healthy  animals  does  not  agglutinate  the  micro-organisms  in 
question  even  in  a  concentration  of  I  :  I.  it  would  thus  be  possible  by  this  test  to 
obtain  a  definite  result  within  two  hours.  It  would  be  necessary  to  resort  to  the 
cultural  method  only  in  case  the  agglutination  gave  negative  results.  It  would  be 
advantageous  to  keep  the  meat  to  be  examined  for  24  hours  after  slaughter  at  a 
temperature  of  18  to  20  C,  and  to  make  the  culture  inoculations  only  after  that 
time.  By  this  procedure  a  marked  increase  of  the  micro-organisms  is  obtained, 
which  are  not  frequently  numerous  immediately  after  slaughter.  On  the  other 
hand,  through  this  method  the  results  of  examination  are  unfortunately  much 
longer  delayed. 

In  scientific  er  forensic  examinations  regarding  the  poisonous  qualities  of  meat, 
the  sero-diagnosis  possesses  a  great  importance  for  the  distinction  of  the  suspicious 
bacilli  found  thereby. 

Also  for  the  diagnosis  of  poisoning  in  men  and  animals  by  meat,  the  agglu- 
tination test  of  the  blood  of  affected  individuals  may  be  of  value. 


362  Chap.  X.     Meat  Poisonings 

Occurrences  of  Poisonings. — The  first  critical  enumeration  of  cases 
which  occurred  before  1880  is  found  in  the  work  of  Siedamgrotzky.  The 
review  of  similar  poisonings,  by  Bollinger,  in  the  same  year,  gives  an 
account  of  17  endemic  poisonings  by  meat,  which  probably  belonged 
principally  to  the  enteritidis  group,  affecting  almost  2,400  cases,  with  35 
deaths.  The  statistics  of  Ostertag,  taken  up  in  his  Handbook,  increases 
the  number  of  poisonings  by  meat  to  90  outbreaks,  which  he  obtained 
from  the  literature  of  the  last  23  years.  These  90  outbreaks  involve  more 
than  4,000  individual  cases,  of  which  the  largest  portion  falls  to  Germany. 

For  the  recognition  of  poisonous  qualities  in  meat,  the  examination 
could  be  carried  out  for  bacteria  by  the  method  recommended  by  B'asenau 
(page  136)  ;  however,  such  a  bacteriological  examination  could  be  used 
in  practice  only  in  emergencies. 

This  would  also  be  the  case  with  the  method  of  examination  sug- 
gested by  De  Nobele.  Stress  should  be  laid  on  the  prevention  of  poison- 
ings by  meat  through  a  conscientious  examination  of  food  animals  before 
and  after  slaughter  by  the  veterinary  inspector.  As  has  been  already 
emphasized,  the  post-mortem  examination  should  be  especially  carried 
out  with  the  greatest  care  and  conscientiousness  in  emergency  slaughter, 
and  should  be  executed  with  the  application  of  all  technical  methods 
available  (page  134). 

Although  there  will  be  certain  doubtful  cases  for  the  practiced  expert 
in  which  the  rendering  of  a  decision  will  not  be  easy,  at  the  same  time 
it  will  be  possible  for  him,  by  considering  and  valuing  all  clinical  and 
pathological  characteristics  of  septic  and  pyemic  affections,  to  prevent  the 
occurrences  of  poisonings  by  meat  almost  completely;  at  any  rate  to 
the  greatest  extent  possible,  according  to  the  present  standpoint  of  scien- 
tific meat  inspection. 

2.     Meat  Poisoning  with  Bacterium  Coli,  Proteus  Species,  etc, 

This  concerns  a  poisonous  action  of  meat,  which  originates  from 
entirely  healthy  animals  being  infested  sometimes  only  after  slaughter, 
with  pathogenic  or  saprophytic  organisms  which  produce  toxins.  Some- 
times such  disease-producing  meat  is  visibly  changed,  decomposed,  or 
affected  with  slight  putrefaction  by  the  action  of  bacteria,  but  in  numerous 
cases  there  are  absolutely  no  changes  noticeable  in  poisonous  meat.  The 
latter  was  principally  observed  in  so-called  chopped-meat  poisonings  (see 
below). 

Nature  and  Manifestations. — The  cases  belonging  here  represent 
principally  pure  intoxicants  by  the  toxins  produced  by  microorganisms 
in  the  injurious  meat.  This  speaks  especially  for  the  early  manifestations 
of  the  disease  which  soon  appear  after  ingestion  of  the  meat  (3  to  4 


Meat  Poisonings  with  Bacterium  Coli,  Proteus  Species,  etc.        363 

hours).  Of  course  intoxication  may  be  combined  with  a  pathogenic 
infection  where  severe  symptoms  of  poisoning  and  a  protracted  course  of 
the  sickness  develop  after  some  time  has  elapsed  as  a  result  of  the  increase 
of  injurious  microorganisms  in  the  digestive  apparatus  of  affected 
persons  The  manifestations  of  these  meat  poisonings  vary  considerably, 
and  are  similar  to  those  which  are  observed  in  the  genuine  poisonings  by 
meat.  Nausea,  vomiting,  diarrhea,  giddiness,  •  headache,  dizziness,  and 
debility  occur,  which  may  increase  to  faintings;  while  in  children  and 
weak  persons,  cholera-like  symptoms  have  also  been  observed.  Recovery 
is  the  rule ;  but  deaths  have  been  also  observed,  especially  in  children.  As 
a  cause  for  this  group  of  meat  poisonings,  according  to  van  Ermengem, 
two  saprophytes  come  into  consideration,  both  of  which  are  common 
inhabitants  of  putrid  animal  substances,  namely :  the  bacterium  coli,  and 
the  bacillus  proteus  with  its  numerous  varieties — for  instance,  proteus 
radians  (Gutzeit)  ;  also  the  microbe  named  by  Hamburger  as  bacillus 
cellulaeformis,  which  is  somewhat  distinguished  from  the  bact.  coli,  and 
appears  of  etiological  importance.  As  these  bacteria  play  a  secondary 
part  in  the  putrefaction  of  meat,  the  injurious  properties  of  such  meat 
may  be  traced  to  them. 

The  injurious  action  of  these  bacteria  consists  principally  as  has 
already  been  mentioned,  in  the  formation  of  toxins  which  are  not 
destroyed  by  ordinary  boiling  and  roasting  of  meat,  although  they  are 
somewhat  attenuated.  According  to  experience,  it  is  true,  boiled  and 
roasted  meat  foods  have  produced  a  great  number  of  poisonings ;  but  the 
latter  were  mostly  milder  than  when  the  meat  was  consumed  without 
previous  heating,  or  was  insufficiently  boiled  or  roasted. 

The  intensity  of  the  decomposition  of  meat  does  not  stand  at  all  in 
relation  to  its  presumed  poisonous  character ;  and  in  this,  experience  has 
also  taught  that  frequently  only  slight  manifestations  of  decomposition  of 
meat  were  connected  with  severe  poisonous  actions. 

A  statistical  arrangement  of  poisonings  is  not  possible,  since  the 
affections  belonging  here,  with  the  exception  of  the  chopped-meat  poison- 
ings do  not  take,  as  a  rule,  an  epidemic  character,  but  are  limited  to  sepa- 
rate cases,  the  scientific  investigations  of  which  are  made  very  difficult 
for  obvious  reasons. 

The  recognition  of  the  poisonous  quality  of  the  meat  belonging  to 
this  group  is  practically  impossible,  as  has  been  mentioned,  since  objective 
changes  may  be  entirely  absent,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  the 
poison.  In  decomposing  meat  the  signs  described  on  page  328  are  suffi- 
cient to  demonstrate  putrefaction  of  the  meat  and  to  judge  the  same, 
according  to  the  views  given  on  page  330. 

For  the  prevention  of  this  group  of  meat  poisonings  it  is  necessary 
to  exclude  all  such  meat  from  traffic  in  which  putrefaction  had  been  dem- 


364  Chap.  X.     Meat  Poisonings 

onstrated,  or  with  mainfestations  of  decomposition.  Otherwise  these 
meat  poisonings  must  be  prevented  by  the  care  of  the  housewife  or 
servants  in  selecting  for  use  only  unobjectionable  meat.  When  suspected 
meat  cannot  be  unconditionally  excluded  from  human  consumption,  it 
should  be  utilized  only  after  a  complete  boiling  or  thorough  roasting. 

The  so-called  chopped-meat  poisonings  belonging  here,  have  been  observed 
only  in  the  warmer  seasons.  This  -alone  sufficiently  speaks  for  the  fact  that  it 
depends  upon  a  pollution  of  the  easily  decomposing  meat  with  bacteria  (bacterial 
content,  see  page  71),  which  grow  well  on  the  meat  and  form  toxins. 

Chopped-meat  poisonings  of  larger  extent  were  almost  exclusively  observed 
at  such  places  where  a  large  amount  of  slightly  smoked  sausage  or  raw  meat,  or 
partially  roasted  meat  had  been  consumed.  Recently,  epidemic  chopped-meat  poi- 
sonings were  observed  in  Chemnitz,  Dresden,  Gerbstadt,  Gera,  Halle  a.  S.,  Sulken, 
Velbert,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and  elsewhere,  affecting  over  600  people,  with  several 
deaths.  However,  isolated  cares  occur  every  summer. 

Lately  chopped-meat  poisonings  have  been  observed,  in  which  paratyphus  bacilli 
were  supposed  to  be  the  cause.  These  should  not  belong  to  the  chopped-meat  poi- 
sonings proper,  but  to  the  meat  poisonings  of  the  enteritidis  group. 

To  prevent  poisoning  by  chopped  meat  it  is  advisable  not  to  keep  it  at 
a  summer  temperature  for  any  length  of  time ;  wherefore  the  prohibition 
of  the  use  of  preserving  substances  should  be  of  assistance ;  and  the  meat 
should  not  be  consumed  in  a  raw  state  or  insufficiently  prepared. 

3,    Botulismus 

As  botulismus  (allantiasis,  sausage  poisoning)  are  designated  certain 
cases  of  affections  in  man  produced  by  the  consumption  of  meat,  which 
are  specially  characterized  on  account  of  the  symptoms  deviating  from 
both  of  the  previous  groups.  The  name  "sausage-poisoning''  originates 
from  the  fact  that  the  first  critically  observed  cases,  by  Justmus  Kerner, 
in  the  year  1820  were  connected  with  the  ingestion  of  injurious  sausages ; 
and  also  later  many  severe  affections  of  this  kind  could  be  traced  to  this 
source. 

Here,  too,  belong  most  of  the  poisonings  known  as  ichthyosismus  and 
mytilismus,  which  are  produced  by  the  meat  of  fish,  crustaceans,  and 
other  shell- food. 

Nature  and  Manifestations. — Botulismus  consists  in  an  intoxication 
of  the  human  organism  by  poisonous  substances,  which  are  produced  by 
the  bacillus  botulinus,  named  and  discovered  by  van  Ermengem. 

The  symptoms,  especially  characteristic,  are  disturbances  in  the 
sight;  paralysis  in  the  region  of  the  optics,  oculomotorius  (mydriasis), 
trochlearis  abducens  facialis  (ptosis),  as  well  as  of  the  lachrvmalis  and 
trigeminus  nerves ;  they  may  occur  singly  or  in  association.  Striking 
manifestations  originating  in  the  digestive  apparatus  are  frequently  absent 


Botulismus  365 

or  only  slightly  pronounced  and  passing.    On  the  other  hand  there  exists 
a  persistent  constipation,  retention  of  urine,  and  marked  debility. 

Fever  as  well  as  disturbances  in  consciousness  and  sensibility  is 
absent.  The  symptoms  of  the  disease  appear  24  to  36  hours  after  the 
meal ;  occasionally,  however,  even  later.  Regarding  the  severity  and 
duration  of  the  disease,  there  exist  great  differences.  The  mortality  is 
about  25  to  30  per  cent.,  much  higher  than  in  meat  poisonings. 

Causes. — As  is  already  indicated  by  the  name,  botulismus  is  chiefly 
caused  by  the  ingestion  of  sausages  which  are  infested  with  the  bacillus 
botulinus,  producing  toxins.  But  as  this  organism  thrives  also  in  other 
meat  foods  (see  below),  the  most  varied  meat  food  may  enter  into  the 
question  in  sausage  poisoning. 

Of  those  sausages  which  frequently  cause  poisoning  are  first  of  all 
to  be  mentioned  liver — as  well  as  other  visceral  and  jelly  sausages,  which 
in  certain  localities  are  quite  voluminously  prepared,  and  by  smoking  are 
made  into  cured  sausages.  The  sausage  content  itself  does  not  resist 
putrefaction  to  any  extent,  and  in  the  large  sizes  in  which  sausages  mostly 
appear  when  they  are  prepared  on  occasions  of  so-called  home  slaughter 
for  domestic  consumption,  it  may  readily  occur  that  on  account  of  insuffi- 
cient boiling  the  bacteria  contained  within  the  sausages  remain  unde- 
stroyed.  Also  the  bactericidal  action  of  the  smoking  is  only  slight  in  very 
large  sausages,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  penetrating  them ;  and  espe- 
cially will  it  fail  when  the  smoking  is  carried  on  for  only  a  few  hours 
(during  the  day),  which  occurs  frequently  in  the  households  of  the 
country. 

Proof  that  the  poisonous  effect  of  sausages  can  be  traced  to  bacteria 
lies  in  the  fact  that  other  meat  foods  in  the  state  of  putrefaction  also 
produced  entirely  analagous  affections  to  those  of  sausage  poisoning. 
Thus  poisonings  were  observed  in  partially  decomposed  hams,  in  slightly 
putrid  meat,  and  in  their  broth ;  also  in  fermenting  pickled  meat ;  through 
the  ingestion  of  roasted  geese,  which  were  allowed  to  hang  undrawn  for 
a  day  in  the  cellar ;  through  old  roast-mutton  gravy ;  sausage  meat ;  liver ; 
liver-pate ;  spoiled  canned  preserves,  etc.  At  the  same  time  the  respective 
foods  did  not  in  the  least  display  any  striking  changes,  and  showed  prin- 
cipally only  musty,  slightly  rancid,  sourish  odors  and  taste. 

The  bacillus  botulinus  has  some  similarity  to  the  edema  bacillus;  it  is  4-6  ^ 
long  and  0.9-1.2  «,  broad;  straight  with  slightly  rounded  ends.  It  is  an  anaerobe; 
forms  oval  spores  at  the  end  of  the  rod;  grows  luxuriantly  on  alkaline  media  at 
18  to  25°  C,  and  develops  a  sharp  odor  of  butyric  acid.  At  higher  degrees  of  tem- 
perature (35-37°;-  it  grows  only  sparingly  and  without  the  formation  of  toxins. 
By  heating  half  an  hour  at  80°  C.  the  bacillus  becomes  inactive  the  same  as  when 
exposed  for  i  hour  at  10°  C.  As  the  bacillus  does  not  grow  on  pork  containing 
6  per  cent,  salt,  well  pickled  meat  foods  which  always  contain  a  larger  quantity  of 
salt  should  not  be  infected  with  it.  But  as  pickling  is  frequently  quickly  and 


366  .  Chap.  X.     Meat  Poisonings 

superficially  accomplished,  pickled  and  smoked  products  may  contain  botulinus  bacilli 
and  their  toxins. 

Van  Ermengem  classifies  the  bacillus  botulinus  in  a  group  of  microorganisms 
newly  established  by  himself,  the  toxigenic  saprophites,  which  do  not  multiply  in  the 
living  body,  but  act 'only  through  their  toxins.  The  enormous  poisoning  action  of 
the  botulismus  toxins  appears  evident,  when  it  is  considered  that  for  instance  1-2 
drops  of  a  gelatin  culture,  or  o.ooi  cm.  of  dextrose  bouillon  culture  administered 
per  os  to  monkeys  or  guinea  pigs,  constitute  a  fatal  dose  in  from  24  to  36  hours. 

Casuistics. — Most  of  the  sausage  poisonings,  both  epidemic  and 
endemic  cases,  which  have  occurred  in  Wiirttemberg,  according  to  Oster- 
tag,  can  be  accredited  to  the  lack  of  intelligence  by  which  formerly  certain 
kind  of  sausages,  as  liver  and  blood  sausages,  were  prepared.  Also  in 
Bavaria,  Baden,  and  North  Germany  sausage  poisonings  have  been 
observed,  although  less  frequently;  and  single  cases  are  reported  in  the 
literature  from  everywhere. 

For  prevention  of  botulismus,  the  following  statement  prepared  by 
van  Ermengem,  besides  the  instructions  to  the  public  on  the  proper  prep- 
aration of  sausages,  is  worthy  of  consideration : 

1.  Preserved  food  substances,  which  are  exposed  to  anaerobic  bac- 
teria, must  never  be  consumed  in  a  raw  state,   but   should   be   properly 
cooked. 

2.  Preserved  food  substances  which  by  a  rancid  or  butyric  acid- 
like  odor  arouse  suspicion   should  be  rightly  excluded  from  consumption. 

3.  For  pickling,  only  such  brine  should  be  employed  which  contains 
at  least  10  per  cent,  common  salt,  as  the  bacillus  botulinus  cannot  multiply 
in  this  solution. 

From  a  therapeutic  standpoint,  the  antitoxin  serum  prepared  by  Kempner  for 
the  treatment  of  botulismus,  is  worthy  of  consideration. 


XI,   History  of  Meat  Hygiene 

Of  the  history  of  meat  hygiene,  and  especially  of  meat  inspection, 
which  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  history  of  the  meat  food  of  man 
in  general,  only  a  few  brief  remarks  should  be  made  here,1  which  char- 
acterize its  development  in  the  main. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  man  at  all  times,  at  least  as  far  as  his  appear- 
ance can  be  traced  paleontologically,  has  consumed  meat  food.  Especially 
for  Europe,  it  can  be  considered  as  proven  that  the  paleolithic  inhabi- 
tants of  caves  had  already  utilized  as  their  food  the  meat  of  various  liv- 
ing animals  and  fish.  Also  the  findings  of  later  epochs  leave  no  doubt  as 
to  the  meat  consumption  of  man,  and  this  may  with  certainty  be  estab- 
lished from  the  oldest  historical  traditions. 

As  the  oldest  facts  in  the  history  of  meat  inspection  may  be  consid- 
ered, the  food  and  edicts  of  the  Egyptians  who  designated  certain  animals, 
first  of  all  the  hog,  as  unclean,  and  excluded  their  meat  from  the  con- 
sumption of  man.  The  Egyptian  priests  who  held  to  this  with  great  strict- 
ness may  be  therefore  considered  as  the  first  representatives  of  a  method 
of  meat  inspection. 

The  Egyptian  food  laws,  of  which  the  prohibition  of  hog  meat  was 
besides  accepted  by  all  of  the  Semitic  races  of  those  times,  were  without 
a  doubt  prefigurative  for  the  Mosaic  food  laws  of  the  Israelites.  Also 
with  this  race  the  priests  were  the  judges  of  the  meats,  which  is  explained 
by  their  connection  with  the  extensive  religious  animal  offerings  and  the 
share  of  the  priests  in  the  meat  of  the  sacrificed  animal.  The  sacrificed 
animals,  and  in  a  broader  sense  all  the  food  animals,  must  have  been 
healthy  and  without  a  blemish. 

Otherwise,  animals  adapted  for  food  were  divided  into  clean  (rumi- 
nants, domestic  fowls,  and  birds  which  do  not  live  on  carcasses,  as  well 
as  fish  having  fins  and  scales)  and  unclean  (solipeds,  hogs,  etc.).  The 
consumption  of  young  animals  was  interdicted,  and  especially  strict  was 
the  prohibition  maintained  against  consuming  fat  and  blood  as  well  as 
meat  of  hogs.  These  edicts  experienced  amplifications  from  time  to  time, 
and  were  enlarged,  especially  during  the  so-called  Talmudic  period,  which 
extended  through  the  first  century  A.  D.,  by  specific  instructions  regard- 
ing the  slaughter  and  examination  of  food  animals  (page  27).  To  the 
first  belong  especially  the  rulings  for  the  "shacten''  (page  24) . 


1  For  details  see  Ostertag's  Handbuch  der  Fleischbeschau ;  Baranski,  Anleitung 
zur  Vieh-und  Fleischbeschau;  Goltz,  Geschichte  der  Fleischnahrung  und  Fleisch- 
nahrungsmittel. 

367 


368  Chap.  XL     History  of  Meat  Hygiene 

Similar  to  the  Israelitish  and  Egyptian  food  laws  are  those  of  the 
Mohammedans  even  of  to-day.  The  latter  considered  both  the  hog  and 
the  dog  as  unclean,  according  to  the  Koran. 

In  contrast  to  the  views  regarding  the  meat  foods  of  the  Semitic 
races,  stand  those  of  the  old  Greeks  and  Romans.  Pork  was  not  inter- 
dicted, but  was  rather  greatly  favored  by  the  Romans,  and  the  Greeks 
likewise  favored  the  meat  of  young  castrated  dogs.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  consumption  of  meat  of  lambs,  which  were  not  shorn,  at  one  time  was 
forbidden  to  the  Athenians,  and  the  Romans  disdained  the  meat  of  goats 
as  unhealthy.  Police  were  located  at  the  Athens  market  from  the  earliest 
times.  In  Rome,  since  388,  following  the  foundation  of  the  city,  two  state 
Aedils  provided  for  order  and  supervision  of  the  stock  and  meat  markets, 
where  also  an  official  inspection  of  meat  was  conducted. 

The  salting  of  meat,  which  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  was  known  to 
the  Romans,  as  well  as  the  preparation  of  various  kinds  of  sausages 
(botuli  fry,  incisia,  slice  circelli  ring,  temacina  chopped  sausages)  and 
smoked  products.  Well-equipped  abattoirs  (lamenae)  and  meat  markets 
(macelli)  existed,  according  to  Ostertag,  in  old  Rome.  The  beginning  of 
the  old  Roman  meat  control  has  not,  however,  been  further  developed,  for 
it  ceased  with  the  downfall  of  the  western  Roman  Empire. 

From  Northern  Europe  and  the  old  Gallics  and  Germanians  there 
are  no  traditions  regarding  a  supervision  of  meat  foods,  or  on  any  other 
special  customs.  Not  until  the  spreading  of  Christianity  were  Old  Testa- 
ment food  laws  inaugurated,  which  were  strictly  supervised  by  the 
church.  The  prohibition  of  the  consumption  of  horse  meat,  issued  by 
Apostle  Bonifacius,  under  the  direction  of  Pope  Gregory  III,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighth  century  can  be  considered  as  the  first  special  food 
edict  in  old  Germany,  which,  however,  was  not  so  much  used  from  a 
hygienic  standpoint  as  from  consideration  to  the  horse  offerings  of  the 
heathen  Germans.  Later  it  was  prescribed  by  Bonifacius,  under  the 
direction  of  Pope  Zacharias,  that  bacon  and  pork  should  not  be  eaten 
otherwise  than  cooked.  Also  the  consumption  of  diseased  meat  from 
dead  and  torn  animals  was  prohibited. 

In  later  times  the  civil  authorities  of  Germany  gradually  paid  more 
attention  to  meat,  as  this  formed  the  principal  food  of  the  people  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  With  this  the  meat  industry  developed  into  a  particular 
business,  which  was  later  highly  respected.  Although  the  oldest  German 
records  in  which  meat  traffic  received  consideration  have  existed  since  the 
year  1120  (documents  of  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Freiburg),  butch- 
ers, however,  are  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  1156,  in  the  "lustitia  civi- 
tatis  Augsburg"  as  "carnifices."  With  the  further  development  of  the 
trades,  it  was  not  only  the  individual  control  of  the  meat  industry  in  rela- 
tion to  the  orderly  traffic  of  meats  which  progressed  more  and  more,  but 


History  of  Meat  Hygiene  369 

also  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  concerned  themselves  about  it. 
Thus  a  distinction  between  marketable  and  nonmarketable  meat  is  found 
for  the  first  time  in  a  record  which  was  imparted  by  Bishop  Lutold  in 
the  year  1248  to  the  butchers'  fraternity  at  Basel. 

Although  the  decrees  issued  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies relative  to  meat  traffic  were  principally  of  a  local  significance  for 
individual  cities,  they  contain  important  meat-inspection  regulations.  Thus 
are  especially  mentioned  the  measles  of  hogs,  the  bloating  of  meat,  imma- 
turity of  calves,  meat  of  emaciated  and  diseased  animals,  pearly  disease, 
etc.,  and  in  the  year  1276  compulsory  slaughter  as  well  as  compulsory 
inspection  and  declaration  of  sick  animals,  was  ordered  for  the  public 
abattoir  in  Augsburg. 

That  state  regulations  were  also  found  necessary  in  certain  states 
becomes  evident  from  a  decree  of  the  state  of  Mecklenburg  for  the  year 
of  1572,  according  to  which  the  butchers  were  to  be  controlled  by  the  city 
bailiff  and  two  competent  persons. 

After  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  only  little  remained  of  the  former  fra- 
ternal and  official  supervising  regulations  in  the  domain  of  meat  traffic, 
and  only  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  did  the  administration  again  direct  some  attention  to 
meat  and  the  slaughter  of  food  animals.  Without  regarding  local  regula- 
tions, the  decrees  which  existed  at  these  times  for  Mecklenburg,  Han- 
nover, Braunschweig-Liineburg,  and  the  electorate  of  Saxony,  as  well  as 
the  general  decrees  of  Baden,  are  worthy  of  mention.  Also  prohibitions 
against  importations  of  pickled  and  smoked  meats  were  even  then  issued 
by  states  (Hannover,  Saxony),  and  cities  (Leipsic),  doubtlessly  for  fear 
of  rinderpest.  To  a  large  extent,  this  led  to  a  decree  in  Baden  in  the 
year  17/2.  according  to  which  the  professional  opinion  of  the  district 
physician  was  required  on  cattle  which  were  affected  with  an  infectious 
disease :  and  in  other  diseases  that  of  the  stock  examiner  was  necessary 
regarding  the  fitness  of  meat  for  consumption,  in  order  that  meat,  which 
at  that  time  was  very  expensive,  should  not  be  unnecessarily  withheld  as 
human  food.  Even  somewhat  earlier,  in  the  year  1761,  the  government 
of  Bavaria  prescribed  a  renewal  of  the  inspection  of  food  animals  by  offi- 
cial meat  inspectors.  At  that  time  a  change  was  also  affected  in  the  judg- 
ing of  pearly  disease.  Until  then  it  was  accepted  as  identical  with  a 
venereal  affection ;  and,  therefore,  the  meat  of  all  such  affected  cattle  was 
destroyed  without  further  consideration.  But  after  Graumann,  in  1/84, 
explained  that  the  nodules  of  pearly  disease  were  not  injurious  to  human 
health,  the  meat  a'nd  milk  of  cattle  affected  with  this  pearly  disease  were 
no  longer  considered  as  unfit  for  food. 

Until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  little  was  known  of  a 
scientific  system  in  food  regulations ;  they  gradually  appeared  with  the 
25 


370  Chap.  XL     History  of  Meat  Hygiene 

establishment  of  veterinary  schools,  on  a  basis  of  the  medical  views  of 
those  days.  These,  however,  were  not  favorable  to  meat  inspection,  since 
the  teachings  on  the  injurious  effects  of  meat  in  certain  diseased  animals 
led  to  the  view  that  no  danger  threatened  human  health  from  consump- 
tion of  meat  of  diseased  animals.  With  this  not  only  was  a  supervision 
of  the  meat  traffic  declared  superfluous,  but  also  the  formerly  recognized 
hygienic  importance  of  the  public  abattoirs  was  ignored  to  such  an  extent 
that,  in  1826,  a  Prussian  ministerial  script  even  declared  the  introduction 
of  compulsory  slaughter  on  the  part  of  the  local  authorities  as  inadmis- 
sible. As  a  result  of  this  the  number  of  public  abattoirs  in  Prussia  was 
not  only  not  increased,  but  even  already  existing  abattoirs  were 
abandoned. 

Not  quite  so  unfavorable  were  the  meat-inspection  conditions  in 
South  Germany,  where  in  Baden  and  Kurpfaltz  the  institution  of  animal 
inspection  was  not  discontinued,  and  in  the  year  1802  a  Ministerial  decree 
was  issued  in  Wiirttemberg  for  the  prevention  of  very  frequent  poisonings 
by  sausage.  Also  in  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  was  soon  seen  the  necessity 
of  recognized  meat  inspection,  which  was  first  expressed  in  a  meat- 
inspection  ordinance  for  Southern  Bavaria  October  21,  1836,  and  for 
Schwaben  and  Neuburg  January  10,  1857.  Further  meat-inspection  regu- 
lations followed  for  Wurttemberg  March  14,  1860 ;  Northern  Bavaria  June 
2,  1862,  and  Baden  August  17,  1865.  The  further  development  of  meat 
inspection,  which  in  North  Germany  was  based  on  the  Prussian  abattoir 
laws  of  March  18,  1868,  belongs  to  modern  times.  Concerning  the  devel- 
opment of  meat  hygiene  in  other  European  states,  handbooks  on  meat 
inspection  must  be  referred  to  as  well  as  special  historical  works. 

[The  history  of  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States  is  practically 
the  history  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  While  there  were 
forms  of  municipal  meat  inspection  carried  out  in  several  cities  previous 
to  the  organization  of  this  Bureau,  the  inspection  was  not  established  on  a 
scientific  basis  until  the  inauguration  of  the  Federal  meat-inspection 
service.  The  reasons  for  commencing  this  work  were  as  follows : 

The  foreign  sales  of  the  meat-packing  industry  from  the  first  included 
numerous  varieties  of  meats  and  meat  products,  and  by  1879  tne  export 
trade  in  American  bacon  alone,  without  mentioning  other  foodstuffs,  had 
become  well  established,  when  the  continental  countries  became  alarmed, 
seemingly  on  account  of  the  presence  of  trichina  in  American  hog  prod- 
ucts, and  accordingly  prohibitive  measures  against  these  meats  were  insti- 
tuted. Italy  was  the  first  to  promulgate  these  restrictions,  and  by  1881 
Austria,  Germany,  and  France  had  likewise  prohibited  the  importation  of 
American  pork  or  its  products.  American  cattle  met  a  similar  rebuff  at 
the  instance  of  Great  Britain  in  1882,  when  regulations,  commonly  called 
the  "Slaughter  Order,"  were  instituted  by  the  Order-in-Council  of  the 


History  of  Meat  Hygiene  371 

Board  of  Agriculture,  which  compelled  American  cattle  to  be  slaughtered 
at  the  port  of  entry.  This  prohibition  of  store  cattle  was  caused,  pre- 
sumably, by  the  presence  of  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  among  the  cat- 
tle in  a  few  of  the  Eastern  States  and  Illinois,  but  notwithstanding  this 
disease  was  effectually  eradicated  from  this  country  in  1892,  and  since 
that  time  not  a  single  case  has  been  found  either  in  cattle  imported  into 
Great  Britain  from  the  United  States  or  among  our  herds,  the  restrictive 
measures  continue  to  be  enforced  and  the  stigma  constituting  the  assumed 
reason  for  this  embargo  remains.  While  it  is  plainly  evident  to  any  one 
who  has  given  this  subject  the  least  consideration  that  these  two  alleged 
sanitary  procedures  of  foreign  governments  were  directly  pointed  at  the 
meat  and  live-stock  industry  of  this  country,  and  although  the  vast  falling- 
off  in  the  value  of  our  exports  in  these  lines  was  to  those  variously 
engaged  therein  a  hardship  which  continued  for  a  decade,  nevertheless, 
these  interdictions  must  be  considered  as  the  potent  and  exciting  factors 
in  securing  legislation  for  the  scientific  inspection  of  meats  for  foreign  and 
domestic  use,  and  incidentally  in  advancing  the  cause  of  veterinary  science 
in  the  United  States. 

The  exclusion  of  American  pork  products  finally  became  intolerable, 
and  in  order  to  relieve  the  situation  and  regain  an  export  market  for 
these  foodstuffs,  Congress  passed  the  act  of  August  30,  1890,  providing 
for  the  inspection  of  salted  pork  and  bacon.  It  was  but  natural  to  pre- 
sume that  with  the  passage  of  such  a  law  providing  for  the  certification  of 
the  pure  and  healthful  character  of  American  meats  all  restrictive  meas- 
ures against  our  export  trade  would  be  revoked.  However,  this  initial 
act  was  not  sufficiently  comprehensive,  referring  chiefly  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  products  were  packed  and  their  appearance  immediately  before 
shipment,  without  taking  into  consideration  at  the  time  of  slaughter  of 
the  animals  producing  these  meats.  For  this  reason  the  European  coun- 
tries failed  to  abolish  their  restrictions  against  American  pork.  The  relief 
expected  in  consequence  of  this  act  was  not,  therefore,  realized,  and  on 
March  3,  1891,  Congress,  recognizing  the  importance  of  protecting  and 
fostering  this  export  industry,  the  value  of  which  had  reached  the  sum 
of  $104,660,000,  in  1881,  and  of  acquiring  and  maintaining  a  pure  and 
wholesome  meat  supply  for  our  own  people,  passed  a  more  effective  act. 
This  legislation  authorized  the  issuance  of  regulations  providing  for  the 
ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  examination  of  all  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs 
intended  for  export  and  interstate  commerce,  especially  providing  for  post- 
mortem inspection  of  cattle  the  meat  of  which  is  designated  for  export ;  for 
a  microscopic  examination  of  all  hogs  for  export  in  order  that  certificates 
could  be  issued  setting  forth  their  freedom  from  trichinosis ;  the  condem- 
nation of  all  diseased  animals ;  the  marking  or  stamping  of  all  inspected 
carcasses  and  the  labeling  of  food  products  made  from  such  carcasses 
intended  for  export  or  interstate  traffic. 


372  Chap.  XL     History  of  Meat  Hygiene 

The  work  connected  with  the  endorsement  of  this  act  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  which  had  been  estab- 
lished in  1884,  f°r  the  purpose  of  collecting  information  concerning  the 
nature,  cause,  treatment,  and  prevention  of  diseases  of  animals  and  the 
publication  of  the  best  measures  for  the  prevention  and  eradication  of 
such  diseases.  These  increased  duties  rendered  it  desirable  that  the  vari- 
ous lines  of  work  be  divided,  and  accordingly,  on  April  i,  1891,  the 
Bureau  was  organized  into  several  divisions,  one  of  which  was  designated 
the  Meat  Inspection  Division,  and,  as  its  name  implies,  had,  among  other 
duties,  special  supervision  of  the  inspection  of  meats  for  export  and  inter- 
state commerce.  Regulations  were  immediately  adopted  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  into  effect  this  act  of  Congress.  A  system  of  inspection  was 
devised,  a  force  of  veterinarians  and  their  assistants  organized,  and  the 
inspection  of  meats  inaugurated  within  ten  weeks  from  the  passage  of  the 
act,  or  on  May  12,  1891,  at  the  abattoir  of  Eastman  &  Co.,  of  New  York 
City.  Other  abattoirs  made  application  for  inspection,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  first  complete  fiscal  year,  1892,  inspection  had  been  granted  to  twenty- 
eight  abattoirs  in  twelve  different  cities. 

It  will  thus  be  observed  that  Federal  meat  inspection  has  only  a  very 
recent  history,  but  one  of  which  our  people  and  our  profession  can  justly 
be  proud. 

The  microscopic  examination  of  pork  for  trichina  was  first  estab- 
lished in  Chicago,  June  22,  1891,  and  likewise  started  in  other  cities  before 
the  end  of  that  year.  At  first  there  was  some  hesitancy  and  skepticism 
among  the  packers  as  to  the  practical  application  of  this  microscopic 
examination  without  seriously  retarding  the  business  of  the  firms  and 
causing  vexatious  and  unnecessary  delays,  but  all  doubts  were  shortly 
dispelled  by  the  satisfactory  performance  of  the  work,  and  the  problem 
was  efficiently  solved  by  the  persistence  and  skill  of  the  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the  growing  perception  and  ripening- 
knowledge  of  his  assistants.  As  a  direct  result  of  these  microscopic 
examinations  of  pork  products  which  were  subjected  to  the  keenest 
scrutiny  of  the  attaches  of  European  countries  and  favorably  reported 
upon  by  them,  the  decree  of  September  3,  1891,  was  made  by  the  German 
government  after  the  Saratoga  Convention  which  readmitted  American 
pork  that  was  officially  certified  as  having  been  microscopically  examined 
before  shipment  from  the  United  States. 

Subsequently  similar  interdictions  were  removed  by  Italy,  France, 
Denmark,  and  Austria,  and  in  consequence  of  this  reestablished  confi- 
dence relative  to  the  healthfulness  and  purity  of  the  pork  products  of 
this  country  the  export  trade  began  at  once  to  show  decided  and  gratify- 
ing increase  and  to  gradually  expand  and  regain  its  former  importance 
and  value. 


History  of  Meat  Hygiene  373 

The  beneficial  and  desirable  results  that  would  necessarily  accrue 
in  consequence  of  having  the  supervision  and  inspection  of  the  Govern- 
ment meat  inspectors  to  certify  to  the  purity  and  soundness  of  the 
products  of  their  abattoirs,  soon  appealed  to  and  was  quickly  acted  upon 
not  only  by  the  packers  who  sought  to  compete  in  foreign  markets,  but 
those  doing  strictly  a  local  and  interstate  business.  The  proprietors  of 
those  abattoirs  desiring  inspection  for  their  meat  products  are  required 
to  make  written  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  stating  the 
kind  and  number  of  animals  slaughtered,  and  the  destination  of  the 
products  thereof,  and  to  agree  to  such  supervision  of  their  business  as 
may  be  demanded  by  the  regulations  of  the  Bureau.  On  conforming  to 
such  requirements  the  packing  house  is  given  a  serial  number  by  which  it 
and  the  products  thereof  are  thereafter  known,  and  an  inspector  is  placed 
in  charge  of  the  plant  and  furnished  with  a  sufficient  number  of  veteri- 
nary inspectors  and  inspector  assistants  to  carry  out  the  required 
inspection. 

The  extension  of  the  work  caused  by  the  enforcement  of  the  act  of 
Congress  cannot  be  fully  appreciated  or  comprehended  without  a  knowl- 
edge relative  to  the  importance  and  magnitude  of  the  subject  The  suc- 
cessful and  speedy  elaboration  of  many  details  which  necessarily 
required  much  labor  and  consideration  and  the  care  and  efficiency  with 
which  they  were  immediately  enforced  exceeded  all  expectations  when  the 
difficulties  and  obstacles — the  inherent  perplexities  of  the  question — 
were  considered.  Moreover,  this  inspection  was  an  innovation  in  sanita- 
tion in  this  country,  and  was  of  necessity  carried  out  principally  by  inex- 
perienced men  who  were  chosen  chiefly  on  the  strength  of  their  political 
influence  rather  than  by  the  breadth  of  their  veterinary  knowledge. 

The  next  epoch  in  the  history  of  meat  inspection  is  marked  by  the 
placing  of  all  employees  of  the  Bureau  into  the  classified  service  by  Presi- 
dential order.  This  took  effect  July  i,  1894,  since  which  time  all  appoint- 
ments to  the  force  have  been  made  only  after  the  applicant  has  passed  a 
rigid  and  highly  satisfactorily  examination.  By  this  means  only  the 
intelligent,  competent  and  superior  candidates  are  chosen  from  the  eligible 
list  by  certification  from  the  U.  S.  Civil  Service  Commission.  Now  that 
the  merit  system  is  in  vogue,  not  only  the  personnel  of  the  Bureau  has 
been  improved,  as  would  be  expected,  but  the  harmony  and  discipline 
resulting  therefrom  is  vastly  better  than  is  possible  where  political 
intrigue  forms  a  basis  of  appointment,  promotion  and  retention.  The 
first  requisite  to  be  met  by  those  aspiring  to  the  position  of  veterinary 
inspector  is  to  be  a  graduate  of  a  recognized  and  reputable  veterinary 
college,  and  then  to  pass  a  rigid  examination  that  destroys  the  ambition  of 
a  large  percentage  of  applicants.  After  successfully  meeting  these 
requirements  and  receiving  an  appointment,  his  future  service  depends 


374  Chap.  XI.     History  of  the  Meat  Hygiene 

entirely  upon  the  personal  equation,  and  would  include  the  ability,  integ- 
rity, and  discretion  with  which  his  onerous  and  multiple  duties  are 
performed. 

Previous  to  1894  the  inspection  consisted  principally  in  the  examina- 
tion of  beef  for  export  and  the  microscopic  examination  of  pork  destined 
for  continental  Europe,  but  at  this  time,  owing  to  an  increased  demand  for 
official  inspection  of  meats,  a  similar  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem 
examination  was  extended  to  hogs  as  had  already  been  in  operation  from 
the  beginning  with  cattle.  In  the  following  year  calves  and  sheep  were 
likewise  subjected  to  inspection  both  before  and  after  slaughter.  As  the 
inspection  gradually  increased  and  covered  a  large  number  of  animals, 
it  became  more  and  more  important  to  obtain  sufficient  authority  from 
Congress  to  dispose  of  the  condemned  carcasses,  as  the  original  act  failed 
to  grant  power  for  the  proper  disposal  of  such  products.  The  danger  of 
allowing  condemned  meats  to  remain  undestroyed  is  palpable  when  taken 
into  consideration  with  the  limited  authority  of  the  Federal  Government 
regarding  the  use  of  such  carcasses  within  the  State.  That  it  was 
highly  unsatisfactory  to  the  Bureau,  as  well  as  to  the  health  of  our  peo- 
ple, to  permit  the  packer  to  have  absolute  control  over  the  final  dispo- 
sition of  unwholesome  meats,  was  readily  appreciated,  especially  in  view 
of  the  dearth  of  state  and  municipal  sanitary  authorities  vested  with  the 
power  for  properly  disposing  of  those  products.  Consequently  Congress, 
by  the  enactment  of  March  2,  1895,  granted  full  power  to  the  Secretan 
of  Agriculture  to  adopt  such  rules  and  regulations  as  would  be  necessary 
to  prevent  the  use  of  condemned  carcasses  for  export  or  interstate 
traffic,  making  it  a  misdemeanor  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $1,000 
or  imprisonment,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court.  The  work  was  rapidly 
advancing  as  the  inspectors  became  more  thoroughly  trained  and  expe- 
rienced. New  problems  and  duties  were  taken  up  as  fast  as  the  previous 
ones  had  been  elucidated  and  controlled,  and  the  progress  made  was 
highly  gratifying  In  keeping  with  this  policy  of  steady  conservative 
progress,  the  service  was  extended  in  1895  by  new  legislation  to  include 
the  interstate  cattle  inspection,  and  by  1897  not  only  all  the  beef  and  the 
greater  part  of  pork  and  other  meat  products  exported  to  Europe,  but  a 
large  amount  of  meat  intended  for  interstate  commerce  was  inspected  in 
accordance  with  the  law. 

Although  the  legislation  of  neither  1891  nor  1895  mentioned  sanita- 
tion, the  Department  in  February,  1906,  issued  a  sanitary  regulation 
demanding  the  installation  of  toilet  rooms  for  the  employees  of  the  vari- 
ous packing  houses  and  insisting  on  cleanliness  in  all  official  abattoirs. 
Considerable  progress  was  being  made  along  these  lines  when  the  agita- 
tion of  1906  drew  attention  to  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  relating  prin- 
cipally to  canned  and  prepared  meats,  the  use  of  preservatives,  and  the 


History  of  Meat  Hygiene  375 

insanitary  condition  and  methods  of  the  packing  establishments,  although 
the  Department  at  that  time  had  no  control  over  such  matters  under  the 
law.  These  defects  of  the  law  under  which  inspection  was  being  con- 
ducted, had  been  realized  and  unsuccessful  efforts  had  been  made  by  the 
Department  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  the  service  by  new  legislation 
and  increased  appropriations,  but  it  required  the  agitation  of  a  sensational 
press  to  direct  public  attention  to  the  inadequacy  and  defects  of  the  law, 
which  finally  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  meat-inspection  act  of  June 
30,  I906.1 

This  act  provides  that  all  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  ante-mortem  examinations  when  the  meat  thereof  is  to  be  used 
in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  and  such  animals  as  are  rejected  must 
be  slaughtered  subject  to  post-morten  inspection.  It  further  provides 
for  the  post-mortem  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  the 
products  of  which  are  intended  for  interstate  and  foreign  trade.  Those 
found  fit  for  human  food  are  marked  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  and 
those  carcasses  found  diseased  or  otherwise  unfit  for  food  are  marked 
"U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned/'  and  all  such  condemned  meats  are 
destroyed  in  the  presence  of  a  Government  inspector.  All  meats  which 
are  marked  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed"  may  be  reinspected  at  any 
subsequent  time,  and  if  it  has  become  tainted,  unclean,  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  food  it  must  be  destroyed.  In  order  that  the  above  slaughtering 
establishments  will  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  Government  at  ail 
times,  it  is  provided  that  the  employees  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Indus- 
try shall  have  access  to  all  portions  of  the  plant  day  and  night,  whether 
it  is  in  operation  or  not.  Furthermore,  power  is  granted  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  to  destroy  all  food  products  containing  dyes,  chemicals. 
or  ingredients  which  render  the  meat  unfit  for  food.  And  all  food 
products  handled  in  any  official  establishment  must  be  under  the  super- 
vision of  an  inspector  during  their  preparation  for  preserving  in  cans,  tins, 
pots,  or  other  receptacles.  These  containers  shall  then  bear  a  label 
that  the  contents  have  been  inspected  and  passed.  Nor  are  these  food 
products  allowed  to  be  sold  under  any  false  or  deceptive  name.  The 
Government  is  also  empowered  to  have  experts  in  sanitation  to  make 
inspection  of  all  establishments,  and  to  prescribe  regulations  of  sanitation 
to  be  maintained,  and  when  the  sanitary  conditions  are  not  satisfactory 
the  meat  of  such  an  establishment  cannot  enter  interstate  commerce. 
This  act  further  provides  that  on  and  after  October  i,  1906,  no  carrier 
shall  transport  or  receive  for  transportation  any  carcasses,  meat,  or  meat- 
food  products  \yhich  have  not  been  inspected  and  marked  "U.  S.  Inspected 
and  Passed,"  and  any  person  or  firm  violating  any  of  its  provisions  may 
be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $10,000  or  imprisonment  not  longer 


1  This  law  is  reproduced  on  page  127. 


376  Chap.  XL     History  of  Meat  Hygiene 

than  two  years,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment.  For  the  enforce- 
ment of  this  law  a  permanent  yearly  appropriation  of  $3,000,000  is  made. 
When  it  is  considered  that  heretofore  the  yearly  appropriations  for  meat 
inspection  have  always  been  less  than  requested  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, and  that  in  the  years  of  the  largest  appropriations  they  averaged 
a  little  over  $800,000,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  a  great  advance 
has  been  made,  not  only  in  securing  a  rational  and  eminently  satisfactory 
law  on  meat  inspection,  but  also  an  appropriation  which  will  permit  of 
its  efficient  and  continued  enforcement.  .  And  it  can  no  longer  be  said,  as 
it  has  been  stated  in  the  past,  that  we  are  more  particular  in  protecting  the 
people  of  Europe  than  our  own  citizens. 

Meat  inspection  in  Canada  is  only  of  recent  origin.  There  was  no- 
government  control  maintained  in  Canada  in  connection  with  meat-food 
products  until  the  necessity  for  such  action  was  brought  to  the  attention 
of  the  people  through  the  meat-inspection  agitation  in  the  United  States. 
Then  the  Parliamentary  authorities  passed  a  meat-inspection  bill  in  Sep- 
tember, 1907,  which  provides  for  a  competent  meat-inspection  service, 
not  alone  for  the  increasing  export  of  meat  and  meat-food  products,  but 
likewise  for  the  control  of  the  meat  supply  destined  for  home  consumption. 

Accordingly,  in  order  to  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  well-trained 
veterinary  inspectors  for  this  work,  arrangements  were  made  through  the 
Veterinary  Director  General  for  a  special  course  of  instruction  in  meat 
inspection  in  one  of  the  veterinary  colleges  of  the  United  States,  located 
near  a  large  packing  center.  Thus  the  Canadian  veterinarians  were 
admitted  daily  to  the  large  abattoirs  and  were  paired  with  the  inspectors 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in  order  that  they  should  acquire  a 
most  valuable  practical  knowledge  of  the  duties  required  by  the  Canadian 
government.  At  the  same  time  a  full  course  of  lectures  was  given  to  the 
students  on  the  scientific  aspect  of  meat  inspection. 

The  requirements  for  the  appointment  as  veterinary  inspector  in 
Canada  are  practically  the  same  as  in  the  United  States.  Graduates  of 
recognized  veterinary  colleges  are  required  to  pass  a  special  examination 
on  veterinary  branches. 

The  regulations  governing  meat  inspection  in  Canada  follow  the  same 
lines  as  those  in  force  at  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  They 
provide  for  an  ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection  of  all  food  ani- 
mals slaughtered  in  an  establishment  where  government  inspection  is 
maintained  as  well  as  strict  sanitation  of  those  establishments.  The  prin- 
ciples in  the  judgment  of  carcasses  are  also  similar  to  those  adopted  in 
the  United  States  meat-inspection  regulations.] 


XII,    Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards 


The  supply  of  meat  forms  for  all  communities,  especially  for  large 
cities,  a  factor  of  pronounced  economic  and  hygienic  importance.  This 
meat  supply  is  being  obtained  in  more  and  more  abundance  from  certain 
central  places,  in  which  the  largest  quantity  of  meat,  the  so-called  dressed 
meat,  is  sold.  Such  central  places  are  the  public  abattoirs  (slaughter 
houses),  which  at  the  same  time  form  the  principal  and  central  points  for 
ante-mortem  and  post-mortem  inspection  mentioned  in  this  book.  For  a 
more  accurate. study  of  the  questions  and  conditions  to  be  considered  in 
the  building  and  equipment  of  public  abattoirs,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
special  literature  on  that  subject.1 

As  the  larger  abattoirs  are  frequently  connected  with  stock  yards, 
these  stock  yards  must  also  be  mentioned. 

1,     Abattoirs 

By  abattoirs  are  understood  establishments  which  serve  for  slaughter 
of  such  animals  the  meat  of  which  is  utilized  as  food  for  human  beings. 
Further,  the  meat  is  roughly  prepared  there  for  the  market,  is  stored  in  the 
various  departments,  and  frequently  also  the  so-called  offal  is  worked  up 
or  is  preliminarily  treated  as  well  as  removed,  if  further  utilization  can- 
not be  found.  As  the  use  of  the  abattoir  is  available  for  every  one,  they 
are  designated  in  general  as  public  abattoirs.  With  this,  as  a  rule,  is 
usually  associated  compulsory  slaughter  or  slaughtering  in  abattoirs. 
With  the  latter,  the  inhabitants  of  a  locality  are  compelled  to  carry  out 
the  contemplated  slaughter  of  animals  of  certain  species  only  and  exclu- 
sively in  public  abattoirs,  provided  accidental  or  emergency  cases  do  not 
exceptionally  require  immediate  emergency  slaughter  of  an  animal  at  any 
other  place.  With  the  introduction  of  compulsory  slaughter  further  use 
of  all  private  slaughtering  places  which  may  exist  in  the  locality  for 
slaughtering  purposes  is  accordingly  prohibited. 

The  construction  and  use  of  public  abattoirs  is  regulated  by  law  in 
many  German  cities. 


1  Among  others,  Schwarz.  Building  Equipment  and  Operation  of  Public  Abat- 
toirs and  Stock  Yards,  Berlin,  1898;  Schwarz,  Machine  Technique  for  the  Operation 
of  Abattoirs.  Berlin,  1901 ;  Osthoff,  Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards;  newly  adapted  by 
Dr.  M.  Fischer,  Professor  of  the  University  of  Halle  a.  s.,  2d.  edition,  Leipsic,  1903. 

377 


378  Chap.  XII.     Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards 

The  law  applying  to  abattoirs  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  has  the  fol- 
lowing wording : 

Law  Concerning  the  Public  Abattoirs,  of  July  n,  1876 

1.  In  localities  in  which  public  abattoirs  are  present  in  sufficient  numbers,  or 
such  that  are  to  be  established  by  local  statutes,  there  may  be  prohibited — 

(a)  The  establishment  of  new.  private  slaughtering  places  as  well  as 

(b)  A  further  use  of  existing  private  slaughtering  places.     All  such  statutory 
provisions  to  be  made  effective,  require  the  approval  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

2.  Inasmuch    as    the    owners    of    private   slaughtering    places    are    entitled    to 
indemnities    in    cases    of    certain    diseases,    the    latter    should    be    granted    by    the 
community. 

3.  The  Department  of  the  Interior  is  authorized  to  suspend  in  whole  or  in  part 
the  statutory  provisions  enacted  in  accordance  with  law    if  the  provisions  given 
in  the  introductory   remarks  are  no  longer  present,   and   if  the  community   does 
not  remedy  the  existing  deficiency  inside  of  a  given  time;  if  such  conditions  apply 
to  a  city  community  with  city  regulations,  a  hearing  should  be  given  before  the 
District  Commissioners;  in  all  other  cases,  a  hearing  before  the  County  Commis- 
sioners should  be  taken. 

A,  Location  of  the  Abattoir 

In  selecting  a  location  for  an  abattoir  it  should  be  considered  that  the 
building  should — 

1.  Be  located  outside  the  city,  and  there  should  be  no  indication  of 
it  being  soon  surrounded  by  other  buildings. 

2.  Easy  of  access  from  all  points  of  the  city  by  good  roads. 

3.  Be  easily  connected  by  a  side  track  with  the  existing  railroad  line. 

4.  Have  underground  drainage  for  the  waste  water,  without  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  built-up  section  of  the  city,  and  executed  in  such  a 
way  that  it  should  empty  below  the  city  into  a  water  drain,  or  into  a  con- 
structed waste-water  cleaning  plant. 

5.  Have  a  sufficient  water  supply  to  cover  the  great  demand  of 
wash  water  which  is  required  in  abattoirs. 

6.  Be  of  such  sufficient  size  that  an  extension  of  the  plant  at  that 
location  should  be  assured  for  at  least  30  years. 

B,  Entire  Establishment 

Regarding  the  location  of  the  various  buildings  and  rooms  of  an 
abattoir,  there  are  distinguished  three  systems  in  general : 

I.  The  German  arrangement  of  the  buildings  (Fig.  155)  aims  to 
make  the  plant  appear  closed  as  much  as  possible.  Therefore,  the  most 
important  operating  rooms  are  either  united  in  a  single  building  under 
one  roof,  or  most  of  the  buildings  are  connected  by  roofed  connecting 


Entire  Establishment 


379 


passages,  in  such  a  way  that  larger  open  courts  are  not  present  between 
the  various  buildings. 

The  advantages  of  the  German  arrangement  of  buildings  lie  in  the 
smaller  requirement  of  space,  lower  buildings,  and  operating  expenses; 
good  facilities  for  surveying  and  supervising,  convenient  connections  of 
the  working  establishments,  and  consequently  saving  of  time  in  slaughter 


10S  6 


Fig.  155.     Ground  plan  of  an  abattoir  (Tilsit)  with  German  arrangement  of  the 
buildings. 


and  an  easy  control  of  the  butcher  helpers  by  the  foremen,  as  well  as 
protection  against  draught,  rain,  snow,  and  cold,  which  such  a  closed 
plant  affords  to  a  greater  advantage  than  an  open  establishment.  As  a 
disadvantage  of  the  German  system  stands  out  prominently  the  diffi- 
culty for  extensions,  the  effect  of  which,  however,  may  be  avoided  by  cor- 
rect measuring  for  the  requirements  of  space,  and  commodious  arrange- 


Entire  Establishment  381 

ments  of  the  principal  operating  rooms.  On  account  of  the  latter  condi- 
tions, the  German  arrangement  of  buildings  is  not  adapted  for  abattoirs 
of  larger  cities ;  while  on  the  other  hand,  it  possesses  great  advantages 
without  a  doubt  for  medium  and  small  abattoirs,  as  compared  with  the 
French  system ;  and  above  all,  it  is  also  more  suitable  in  climatic  relations 
for  most  parts  of  Germany. 


tgeplan.  StMischer  l/ieh:md  ScMachihofzit.Dresden.  (Stadtbaurat  HtwErlwein.) 


KMwf 
SMachlhof 
•waUuna. 


'Jiildts-Schlfuhthof. 
mm  tyerde-SMachthof 
ITmnnm  Oberstdnderstallungen. 


Fig.    157.     Ground  plan  of  an  abattoir  and  stock  yards,  in  which  the  first  is 
arranged  in  accordance  with  the  combination  system. 


2.  In  the  French  arrangement  of  buildings  (Fig.  156),  there  are 
open  courts  or  streets  between  the  various  buildings,  the  grouping  of 
which  is  arranged  according  to  their  operation ;  thus  the  closed  appear- 
ance of  the  German  system  is  absent. 

The  advantages  of  the  French  system  lie,  above  all,  in  the  easy  pos- 
sibility of  extension  of  every  part  of  the  plant :  its  disadvantages  are 
brought  out  by  the  advantages  of  the  German  arrangements.  Large 


382  Chap.  XII.     Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards 

abattoir  plants  can  be  practically  constructed  only  after  the  French  sys- 
tem, or  by  the  following  combination  system : 

The  original  characteristic  slaughter-cell  arrangement  of  the  French  system, 
into  which  every  abattoir  was  divided,  must  now  be  considered  as  a  condition  that 
belongs  to  the  past. 

3.  As  a  combination  system  for  abattoir  plants  (Fig.  157)  is  desig- 
nated a  system  of  building  which  has  been  more  and  more  adopted  in  the 
last  few  years,  in  which  the  principal  operating  buildings  are  arranged 
according  to  the  French  system,  and  connected  by  roofed  passages  or 
connecting  halls.  The  latter,  which  are  found  between  the  various  kill- 
ing houses  on  one  side  and  the  cooling  house  on  the  other,  make  possible 
not  only  the  transportation  of  meat  without  exposure  to  the  changes  of 
weather,  but  they  also  serve  as  stands  for  the  utensils  of  the  butchers, 
for  whom  the  roofing  serves  to  an  advantage,  just  the  same  as  to  the 
butchers,  dealers,  officials  and  other  visitors  to  the  abattoir,  who  frequent 
the  corresponding  buildings.  Similarly  roofed  connecting  passages  are 
also  established  between  the  killing  halls  on  one  side  and  the  tripe  house 
and  manure  house  on  the  other. 

The  advantages  of  such  building  arrangements  become  apparent 
from  the  above  description.  Disadvantages  may  be  present  when  the  cor- 
responding buildings  do  not  face  the  connecting  passageway  with  their 
fronts,  but  border  the  same  with  long  surfaces  of  wall,  thereby  affecting 
slaughter  halls,  etc. 

In  the  central  plant  of  a  large  abattoir  which  is  connected  with  stock  yards,  the 
following  principal  parts  should  be  considered: 

(a)  Stock  yards  with  special  quarantine  pens. 

(b)  Abattoir  with   accessory  buildings. 

(c)  Official  and  plague  abattoir. 

(d)  Horse  and  dog  abattoir. 

(e)  Office  building. 

(f)  Living  quarters. 

(g)  Vaccine  establishment   (for  preparing  lymph  against  small-pox), 
(h)  Railroad  tracks  and  station  for  disposition  of  railroad  cars. 

(i)  Provision  for  sewers  and  clearing  plant  for  waste  water. 

(k)  Water-supplying  plant. 

(1)  Lighting  plant. 

(m)  Streets  and  places  with   roofed  wagon-stands. 

C.     Buildings  and  Rooms 

The  required  buildings  and  rooms  of  every  abattoir  with  their  pur- 
poses and  principal  equipments,  are  obtained  from  the  following: 

i.  In  the  killing  houses,  the  animals  are  slaughtered,  skinned  or 
hair  removed,  eviscerated  and  inspected ;  also  frequently  they  remain 


Buildings  and  Rooms  383 

there  hanging  to  cool  out.  While  in  small  abattoirs,  a  single  room  may 
serve  for  slaughtering  all  species  of  food  animals,  in  medium-sized  abat- 
toirs cattle  and  small  stock  are  slaughtered  together,  while  only  hogs 
are  butchered  in  a  special  room.  In  large  abattoirs,  special  slaughtering 
rooms  must  be  provided  for  cattle,  small  stock,  and  hogs. 

The  slaughtering  of  horses  requires  an  individual  killing  house,  sep- 
arated from  the  others  of  the  abattoir,  in  which  the  slaughtering  of  dogs 
may  also  be  carried  out.  In  the  same  way  there  must  be  provided  a  spe- 
cial killing  house  for  the  slaughter  of  sick  animals. 

Regarding  the  general  equipment  of  the  abattoirs,  the  following 
requirements  should  be  fulfilled: 

As  much  light  as  possible ;  hard,  impenetrable  floors ;  good  drainage 
for  the  water  used  in  washing,  through  open  shallow  gutters ;  smooth 
walls  which  must  be  easily  washed  to  a  height  of  2  meters  from  the  floor ; 
a  plentiful  supply  of  cold  and  hot  water;  abundant  ventilation,  and 
according  to  judgment  also  slight  heating  in  winter. 

(a)  In  killing  houses  for  large  stock  windlasses  are  found  particu- 
larly necessary  for  hoisting  both  cattle  and  horses.     These  winches  are 
termed  stationary  when  the  slaughtered  animal  is  left  to  hang  on  them 
until  cool,  and  movable    when  special  equipments  are  provided  for  cool- 
ing the  carcass    and  the  windlass  serves  only  for  hoisting  and  transport- 
ing the  slaughtered  animal  to  the  already  mentioned  hanging  floor.    The 
latter,  as  a  rule,  is  connected  with  coolers    by  practically  arranged  rails 
and  proper  transporting  equipment    in  such  a  way    that  the  undivided 
hanging  sides  of  large  stock    may  be  conveyed  to  the  coolers  without 
exertion. 

(b)  Killing  houses  for  small  stock  are  characterized  by  hook-frames 
built  into  them  for  hanging  thereon  mostly  skinned  calves  and  sheep  and 
their  viscera.     These  animals  are  slaughtered  on  trestles. 

Lately  there  are  also  in  use  special  slaughter  trestles,  which  are 
fastened  to  the  floor  and  may  be  raised  in  such  a  way  that  at  the  same 
time  they  also  serve  for  hanging  arrangements.  Hook-frames  are  thus 
made  superfluous. 

(c)  The  killing  houses  for  hogs  are  distinguishable  by  the  sticking 
and  scalding  rooms,  as  wrell  as  the  dressing  room.    In  the  first  are  present 
the  striking  and  sticking  sheds ;  also  hot-water  vats,  in  which  the  stuck 
hogs  are  scalded  in  order  to  facilitate  an  easier  removal  of  the  hair.  Some- 
times the  latter  is  also  carried  out  on  special  tables  in  this  room ;  however, 
the  scraping  is  frequently  executed  in  the  room  in  which  the  carcass  is 
dressed.     The  latter  contains  hooks  on  frames    or  rails  for  hanging  and 
eviscerating  hogs  after  the  hair  has  been  removed ;  also  hanging  arrange- 
ments and  tables  for  the  viscera  and  other  parts. 


384  Chap.  XII.     Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards 

For  the  conveyance  of  hogs  from  the  scalding  vat  to  the  scraping 
table  and  from  here  to  the  hanging  floor  and  chill  room,  very  practical 
arrangements  are  frequently  installed  which  save  human  strength  as 
much  as  possible. 

One  of  the  latest  devices  belonging  here,  and  which  has  attracted 
the  attention  of  abattoir  constructors  to  a  great  extent,  is  a  patented 
gliding-rail  system,  with  traversable  spreaders,  constructed  by  the  firm  of 
Kreiser  and  Co.,  in  Kassel. 

In  connection  with  hog-killing  houses  of  large  abattoirs,  trichina- 
inspection  rooms  are  usually  established. 

2.  The  tripe  room  (gut  room)  is  used  for  emptying  and  cleaning  of 
the  gastro-intestinal  canal.     In  small  abattoirs   there  is  only  one  common 
room ;  in  large  ones,  however,  there  are  separate  tripe  rooms  for  every 
slaughter  house.     T-he  tripe  rooms  of  cattle  slaughter  houses  are  most 
always  connected  with  a  special  manure  house  for  the  reception  of  the 
contents  of  the  stomachs.     Otherwise  the  tripe  rooms  are  supplied  with 
troughs  for  cleaning  stomachs  and  intestines  in  warm  and  cold  water, 
with  vats  for  scalding  certain  parts,  and  with  tables. 

3.  The  equipment  and  operation  of  the  cooling  rooms  and  coolers, 
which  are  to-day  inseparable  even  in  small  abattoirs,  have  already  been 
fully  described  on  page  85. 

4.  Stables  must  be  present  for  all  species  of  food  animals,  as  well 
as  for  horses  and  draught  dogs    which  are   employed  in  the   industrial 
traffic  of  abattoirs.     For  the  stabling  of  sick  or  suspicious  stock,  stables 
located  apart  from  the  others  are  equipped,  and  they  must  also  be  used 
for  stabling  foreign  food  stock. 

With  regard  to  the  equipment  of  stables,  the  omission  of  wood- 
work, unpercolating  and  easily  cleaned  floors  and  wall  surfaces,  good 
lighting  and  ventilation,  sufficient  water  supply,  and  good  drainage  for 
the  filthy  water  are  indispensable. 

5.  The  manure  houses  which  have  given  the  best  satisfaction  for 
the  disposition  of  manure    are  so.  equipped  that  they  possess  elevated 
platforms  with  openings  through  which  the  manure  is  poured  or  thrown 
into  closed  iron  manure  cars,  which  are  switched  there.     Especially  good 
ventilation    and   the   quickest   method    for   carrying  off  the  manure  are 
necessary  above  everything.     In  large  abattoirs  practical   devices  have 
lately  been  established  for  the  disposition  of  the  manure  and  for  its  further 
utilization. 

6.  Tallow  Factories  for  Rendering  Fat  and  Tallozv  Obtained  in  the 
Abattoir. — Blood-utilizing  plants,  stripperies,  hide-salting  establishments 
and  hide-houses,  and  plants  for  the  industrial  utilization  of  condemned 
products  are  only  found  in  larger  abattoirs.     An  odorless  working  plant, 
which  may  vary  greatly,  should  be  required  as  absolutely  necessary. 


Management  of  the  Abattoirs  385 

7.  Boiler  and  engine  houses  are  required  in  order  to  obtain  steam 
for  heating  and  operating  purposes,  as  well  as  for  working  the  engines 
for    operating    the    refrigerating    machines,    electric    dynamo    machines, 
pumps,  etc.     The  latter  convey  the  water  into  special  tanks  placed  at  some 
elevation  in  order  to  obtain  a  ready  flow  for  the  water  supply. 

8.  As    sanitary    institutions    or    police     slaughterhouses     (official, 
plague    slaughterhouses)    are    designated  the  establishments  which  are 
present  in  medium-sized  and  larger  abattoirs,  for  the  separated  stabling, 
slaughtering,  sanitary  and  veterinary  police  disposition  of  diseased  food- 
stock  and  those  suspected  of  disease  or  plagues.     They  represent  to  a 
certain  extent    a  small  abattoir  within  a  larger  establishment,  and  are 
correspondingly  equipped.     There  are  also  placed,  as  a  rule,  the  con- 
trivances   for    harmless     disposition   of   condemned    meat     (page     170) 
required  by  the  meat-inspection  regulations,  for  rendering  and  steaming 
meat   (page   161),  for  rendering  fat   (page   169),  pickling   (page   169), 
and   for  curing  meat,   as  well   as  the  apparatus  and  plants  mentioned 
under  6. 

9.  In  the  official  building  are  quarters  for  the  general  and  financial 
management  of  the  abattoir   and   for  the  meat  and  trichina  inspection 
should  they  be  not  located  in  the  slaughterhouses  proper;  wardrobes  for 
the  foremen  and  assistants ;  the  restaurant,  if  there  be  no  special  restau- 
rant building,  and  living  quarters  for  officials. 

Also  an  inspection  office  for  meat  brought  from  the  outside,  as  well 
as  a  Friebank  salesroom,  may  be  located  in  the  office  building,  if  they 
are  not  placed  in  other  buildings. 

10.  Special   doorkeepers   and    scale   houses   are   only   necessary    in 
medium-sized  and  large  abattoirs. 

11.  Waste  water  cleaning  plants,  for  which  the  most  varied  systems 
are  in  existence,  must  be  provided  for  all  abattoirs  in  view  of  the  great 
pollution  of  the  waste  water  of  abattoirs.     Their  construction  naturally 
is  principally  underground. 

D,     Management  of  the  Abattoirs 

The  experience  of  many  years  has  demonstrated  that  the  management 
of  abattoirs  must  be  positively  effected  by  the  community  itself;  it  is 
desired  to  avoid  all  numerous  unpleasant  conditions  and  incidents,  which 
were  observed  in  the  management  of  such  establishments  at  first,  by 
receiving  hearty  cooperation  for  the  public  welfare  from  private  individ- 
uals, corporations,  and  butchers'  cooperative  associations.  Proper  veteri- 
narians have  always  given  the  best  satisfaction  as  managers  of  abattoirs. 

The  same  state  of  affairs  exists  in  the  erection  of  public  abattoirs, 
which  are  to  be  managed  entirely  by  local  administration.  Aside  from 
the  noteworthy  fact  that  in  public  abattoirs  the  police  rights  of  the  com- 
26 


386  Chap.  XII.     Abattoirs  and  Stock  Yards 

munity  are  exercised  to  a  very  great  extent,  it  should  be  especially  con- 
sidered that  the  public  abattoirs  are  not  only  very  good  investments  of 
capital,  but  that  they  are  continually  proving  to  be  a  profitable  source  of 
income.  But  they  should  principally  benefit  the  community,  and  not  the 
private  individual  or  corporation. 

When  an  abattoir  is  not  owned  by  the  municipality,  nor  managed  by 
it,  it  should  be  at  least  required  that  the  experts  assigned  to  the  execution 
of  the  ante-mortem  and  post-morten  inspection,  as  well  as  the  general 
supervision  of  employees,  should  be  permanently  appointed  city  officials. 

Relative  to  the  supervision  and  veterinary  police  work  in  abattoirs, 
what  is  said  on  page  389  will  apply. 

2.    Stock  Yards 

Stock  yards  which  serve  for  commercial  traffic  in  food  animals  in 
specially  constructed  buildings  are  appropriately  equipped.  They  are 
an  important  necessity  for  all  cities  which  cannot  supply  their  demand 
for  food  animals  from  the  immediate  surrounding  country,  but  are  obliged 
to  draw  their  demand  from  larger  stock-raising  localities.  Special 
favorably  located  stock  yards,  or  such  which  are  well  attended,  develop 
frequently  to  be  central  points  for  animal  commerce  of  large  territories ; 
and  consequently  from  such  stock  yards  a  considerable  amount  of  ship- 
ping takes  place. 

As  a  rule,  a  large  proportion  of  the  stock  sold  at  the  stock  markets 
is  slaughtered  at  the  same  place.  Therefore  it  is  practical  to  connect 
the  stock  yards  directly  with  the  abattoirs,  which  appears  especially  of 
great  advantage  when  it  becomes  necessary,  on  account  of  an  outbreak 
of  contagion  in  the  stock  markets,  for  the  immediate  slaughter  of 
affected  stock. 

A,    Location  of  Stock  Yards 

In  the  selection  of  a  location  for  the  erection  of  stock  yards,  the 
same  points  of  view  should  be  followed  as  those  in  the  establishment  of 
an  abattoir.  However,  an  immediate  track  connection  with  a  railroad 
is-  a  natural  necessity,  and  for  the  above-mentioned  reasons  the  advantage 
of  its  connection  with  an  abattoir  becomes  apparent.  Accordingly,  stock 
yards  and  abattoirs  represent  mostly  a  complete  establishment  both  of 
which  are  dependent  upon  each  other.  A  distinct  separation  of  the 
abattoir  from  the  stock  yard  in  such  a  way  that  the  one  may  be  closed 
against  the  other  is  indispensable  from  a  veterinary  police  standpoint, 
and  also  on  the  grounds  of  its  technical  management. 

There  are  no  special  systems  for  grouping  stock  yard  buildings. 
This  is  rather  influenced  by  the  location  of  the  various  buildings  of  the 
abattoir,  and  especially  by  the  practical  points  of  view.  As  single  parts 


Buildings  and  Plants  387 

of  the  stock  yards  there  are  separated  for  special  purposes :  Yards  for 
animals  left  over  from  the  market;  quarantine  and  plague  yards,  which, 
however,  in  smaller  stock  yards  are  mostly  represented  only  as  isolated 
stables. 

B.     Buildings  and  Plants 

The  buildings  and  plants  which  belong  to  a  well-equipped  stock 
yard  will  be  briefly  described.  Regarding  their  equipment  in.  general, 
it  may  be  remarked  that  where  in  the  stock  yards  a  public  traffic  is  main- 
tained, or  food  animals  are  brought,  they  should  in  the  first  place  satisfy 
the  veterinary  police  and  sanitary  requirements  in  relation  to  cleanliness 
and  possibility  for  disinfection  (hard,  impenetrable  floors;  smooth,  easily 
washed  walls;  omission  of  wood-work;  good  arrangements  for  ventila- 
tion; good  light;  abundant  water  supply,  and  good  drainage  for  filthy 
water). 

1.  Stock  which  is  transported  to  the  stock  yards  is  put  up  for  sale 
in  special  market  halls,  which    as  a  rule    occurs  only  on  certain  market 
days.     Whether  a  special  hall  is  provided  for  every  species  of  food  ani- 
mal depends  on  the  size  of  the  stock  yards  and  the  existing  trade  activity. 

At  some  places  calves  are  also  put  up  for  sale  in  the  market  hall  used 
for  cattle,  while  in  others  they  are  sheltered  in  the  market  hall  used  for 
hogs;  and  in  still  other  stock  yards  there  exists  special  small-stock 
market  halls  for  calves. 

Regarding  the  equipment  of  these  market  halls,  railings  should  be 
provided  in  those  used  for  cattle  for  tying  the  animals ;  and  in  the  halls 
for  smaller  stock  divisions  into  smaller  and  larger  pens  are  required  for 
placing  the  animals.  Equipment  for  feeding  stock  in  the  market  halls 
(mangers,  troughs,  racks)  is  not  necessary  in  case  there  is  ample  stable 
room  present,  in  which  stabling  and  feeding  may  take  place  before  and 
after  market. 

2.  Special  value  should  be  placed,  from  the  standpoint  of  veterinary 
police,  on  good  and  sufficient  stables.    However,  the  construction  of  large 
attached  stable  rooms  should  be  omitted   and  small  stable  divisions  should 
be   favored. 

Special  stables  for  horses  are  required  for  the  horses  employed  in 
the  business  of  the  stock  yards.  The  stable  loft  serves,  as  a  rule,  as  a 
storage  room  for  feed  and  straw. 

3.  An  exchange  building  with  restaurant  is  only  necessary  in  large 
stock  yards.    In  this  building  offices  and  business  rooms  are  also  provided 
for  traders,   stock  commission  men,  animal   insurance  companies,   stock 
yard  banks,  etc. 


388  Chap  XII.    Abattoirs  and   Stock   Yards 

4.  A  special  office  building  for  the  officials  and  the  management  of 
the  abattoir  is  necessary  in  those  instances  where  the  required  rooms  can- 
not be  obtained  in  the  other  buildings  (exchange  halls,  stables). 

5.  The   location  of  railroad  platforms  for  loading  and  unloading 
stock  is  influenced  on  the  one  hand  by  track  connections,  but  on  the  other 
hand  the  traffic  with  market  stock  is  considerably  facilitated  by  the  suita- 
ble location  of  the  stables  to  the  platform. 

A  special  platform,  or  a  separated  part  of  the  general  platform,  must 
be  provided  for  the  traffic  of  quarantined  stock  or  animals  infected  with 
a  contagious  disease. 

On  the  platforms  are  holding  and  counting  pens  necessary  for  tem- 
porary quarantine  of  the  stock,  which  should  serve  also  for  veterinary 
police  purposes. 

Small  platforms  for  loading  stock  into  vehicles  are  suitably  erected 
at  various  practical  places  in  the  stock  yards. 

6.  A  dung  yard  must  be  provided    when  the  stable  manure  is  not 
immediately  loaded  into  cars  from  special  manure  houses    (page  384). 
Lately  it  is  aimed  however  to  compound  the  manure,  by  which  method 
the  vegetable  and  animal  organisms  which  produce  disease  are  rendered 
harmless    through  a  development  of  self-heating  manures    as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  process. 

7.  Equipment   for  washing  hogs    (wash  pens,   vats)    and   for   the 
preparation  of  scalded   feed  and  gruels    (gruel   kitchens),    are    usually 
established  in  connection  with  the  respective  stables. 

8.  The  water  supply   (cold  and  warm  water)  of  the  stock  yard  is 
obtained,  as  a  rule,  from  the  corresponding  plant  of  the  abattoir. 

9.  A   disinfection   plant   for   railroad   cars,   with   necessary   tracks, 
steam  and  hot-water   boilers,  hydrants,    etc.,    are    found   only    in    larger 
stock  yards. 

10.  The  above-mentioned  part  of  the  stock  yard  used  for  animals 
left  over  from  the  market  is  indispensable  for  large  stock  yards  at  a  time 
of  danger  from  plague.     It  represents  a  closed  portion  of  the  stock  yard 
with  stables  for  all  species  of  animals  which  were  not  sold,  for  the  time 
being,  on  the  market. 

11.  The  quarantine  or  closed  yards  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
previously  mentioned,  and  are  used   for  the  accommodation  of  market 
stock  from  foreign  countries  which  is  not  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with 
native  stock. 

It  is  more  correct  to  connect  the  quarantine  yards  directly  with  the 
abattoir,  or  to  provide  an  equipment  in  the  yards  for  slaughtering  animals 
placed  in  the  quarantine  pens. 

12.  The  plague  yards,  as  a  rule,  connect  with  the  sanitary  estab- 
lishment mentioned  on  page  385,  in  order  that  the  infected  stock  may 
be   slaughtered  there. 


•Management  of  Stock  Yards  3<Sg 


G     Management  of  Stock  yards 

The  management  of  stock  yards  can  be  conducted  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  has  been  described  on  page  385,  concerning  the  management  of 
abattoirs. 

Veterinary  supervision  of  the  stock  yards,  as  a  rule,  devolves  upon 
the  competent  state  official  veterinarians,  if  special  state  veterinarians  are 
not  employed  for  this  purpose ;  or  the  director  of  the  stock  yards  is  author- 
ized by  the  government  to  maintain  this  supervision,  assigning  an  official 
veterinarian  to  attend  to  the  duties. 


Index 


Page 

Abattoirs  and  stockyards 377 

Abattoirs,  in  Rome 368 

law    concerning 378 

performance  of  meat  inspection 

'» '55 

public 377 

Abdominal  cavity,  lymph  glands  of.  43 
Abomasnm,  diffused  lymphadenia. .  207 

diphtheritic  inflammation   207 

Abscess    198 

hypophrenic    210 

metastatic 297 

Acarus   mange 223 

Accidents,  emergency  slaughter  in.  189 
Acetic  acid,  conserving  with...  78,90 

Acidity  of  fat,   degree  of 336 

Actinobacillosis    of    cattle 276 

Actinomycosis    273 

Advanced  pregnancy,  animals  in . .  186 
Age  of  slaughter  of  animals.  .  16.  183 
Agglutination  test  for  distinguishing 

meat    62 

in  meat  poisonings 361 

Aglossa  pinguinalis    334 

Air  sac  mite 348 

Albumen    34 

Albumenoids   of  muscles 38 

Albumina     73,  337,  339 

Albumose  in  meat  peptone 92 

Aldehyde   in   fat 335 

Allantiasis   364 

Ambulatory   ante-mortem   and   post- 
mortem   inspection 156 

Ammonia    in    putrefaction    of    meat, 

test    for 330 

Amphibias,  pecularities  of  meat  of.     61 

examination  of 356 

Amyloid  degeneration 196 

Anemia 190,  217 

Anatomy     of    the     most     important 

viscera    54 

Angiomatosis   of   the   liver 208 

Animal    flour 175 

Animal      transportation,      regulation 

on     10 

Ankylostomum    radiatum 228 

Anoplocephala    229 

Ante-mortem    and    post-mortem    in- 
spection, ambulatory    156 

dues  for 152 

extraordinary- 156 

organization    of 131 

performance   of 155 

procedure  of 137 

statistics  of 151 

supervision    of 152 


Anthracosis   of   the  lungs 214 

Anthrax   277 

Aphthous  fever 285 

/\piosoma   bigeminum 254 

Appert's    conserving    method 79 

Aroma  bacteria 333 

Ascarides  228 

Ascaris    capsularia 355 

Aspergillus    332 

Atrophy    194 

brown    199 

Autodigestion  of  meat 327 

Autoinfection    with    measles 242 

Autointoxications    322 

Autolysis  of  the   muscles    327 

Azoturia 324 

Bacillary    erysipelas 301 

Bacillus    botulinus 364,  365 

bovisepticus 316 

cellulaeformis  363 

cyanogenus    332 

enteritidis,  Gartner 328 

cause  of  meat  poisoning 358 

gangraenae  emphysematosae  311.328 

gastromycosis  ovis 313 

nodulifacius  bovis 209 

oedematis  maligni 292,  328 

paraputrificus    328 

phosphorescens     332 

piscicidus  agilis 356 

prodigiosus    332 

proteus  as  cause  of  meat  poison- 
ings      362 

putrificus    332 

renalis    bovis    328 

suisepticus   304 

Bacon,  definition  of 33 

Bacterial  contents  of  chopped  meat.     71 

Bacteriemia  293 

Bacterium  avicidum 348 

coli 328 

cause   of  meat  poisonings....  362 

cause  of  sepsis 294 

lymphaticum  aerogenes 209 

pestis    astaci 356 

proteus 328,  329 

Bacteriological  meat  inspection 136 

Balbianidae   254 

Barbel  cholera 353 

Barmenit    89 

Beef,  peculiarities  of  meat 57 

differentiated  from  horse  meat. .     66 

Beef  measles 243 

Bile,   utilization  of 35 

Billy-goats,  odor  of  meat  of 185 


392 


Index 


Pagu 

Binding  quality  of  meat 72 

Binding  substances  in  sausage..  72,339 
Biological  method  for  distinguishing 

the  various  kinds  of  meats 62 

Blackleg   311 

parturient 292,  312 

Bladder  worm 232,  239,  240 

Blastomycosis  of  the  muscles 203 

Bleeding 25 

indications  of  thorough. 25 

incomplete   188 

Blood    34 

chemical  composition  of 42 

Blood   aspiration 214 

Blood  poisoning,  ichorous 293 

purulent    297 

Blood,   quantity   in   slaughtered   ani- 
mals          25 

Blood  sausage    74 

Blood  vessels 42 

Blood,  watery  condition  of 218 

Bloody  urine,   enzootic 256 

Blow  fly........ 333 

Blue  coloration  of  the  meat 332 

of  the  udder 335 

Boars,    odor    of   meat 184 

Boat,  transportation  of  food  animals 

by     10 

Body    lymph    glands '43,5^ 

Boiler  house 385 

Boil'ng  of   meat 76,79,162 

Boiling  test 137 

Bolt  apparatuses 21,  22,  23 

Bolt    hammer 21 

Bone    42 

as  offal 35 

Bone  tissue,  diseases  of 205 

Bone  marrow. 42 

of  calf 58 

of  cattle 58 

of  goat ... 59 

of  hog 59 

of  sheep 59 

Bookkeeping   of   inspections 151 

Boophilus    species 254 

Boracic  acid,  conserving  with.  . 89 

test  for 342 

Boroglyceride   89 

Bothriocephalus    lat;ts 229,239,355 

Bothriocephalus  liguloides 239 

Botriomycosis 277 

Botulismus    364 

Breaking  down  processes  in  connec- 
tive tissue 204 

Bradsot 313 

Branding    stamp 12,  161 

Brine 87 

Broad    tapeworm   of  man . .   229,  239,  353 

Bromatology   I 

Broncho-pneumonia    of    calves 311 

Brticin  reaction  (test  for  saltpeter)  .  341 
Buffalo  meat  distinguished  from  beef  70 
Bulging  of  cans 340 


Page 

Bull,  characteristics  of  the  meat  of  58 

Bull  meat,  odor  of 185 

Bullet-shooting    apparatus 22 

Burning  of  small  parts  of  carcasses.  178 

stove  after  Kori 178 

Burying  of  meat 180 

Butter  refractometer 344 

Butterine    94 

Buying  of  food  animals 4 

Cadaver  bacilli 280 

Calcareo-fibrous  nodules  in  the  lungs  214 

Calcification    198 

presternal 206 

multiple    210 

Calf,  age  and  maturity  of 16 

definition   of 2 

diarrhea    319 

diphtheria  318 

fever    324 

meat,   inflation  of 27 

peculiarities    of 58 

paralysis,  septic 296 

paralysis,    suppurative 299 

ruffles    34 

Canned  meat 79,  80 

inspection    of 340 

poisonous  365 

Carbolic  odor  of  meat 335 

Carceag  of  sheep    (parasitic   ictero- 

hematuria)    256 

Carcinomatosis     203 

Carne  pura 79 

Carnifices     368 

Caro   porosa 344 

Caseation     196 

Cat,    distinguishing    of    meat    from 

rabbit    64 

Catarrhs!  fever  of  cattle,  malignant.  317 

Caviar 91 

examination  of 346 

Cartilage    42 

diseases  of 206 

Central  nervous  system,  diseases  of.  217 

Cerebral  bladder-worm  cyst 233 

Cerebro-spinal  meningitis  of  horses.  217 

Chalicosis  nodosa  of  the  liver 209 

of  the  lungs 214 

Chargue   dulce 79 

Cheiranthus   hispidus. 228 

Chemistry  of  the  tissues  and  organs.  36 

Chemical   conserving  methods 87 

destruction  of  meat 178 

Chicken    cholera 348 

diphtheria    350 

f avus   348 

meat,  appearance  of 202 

pest    340 

pox     348 

tuberculosis   350 

Chlorine   odor   of   meat 335 

Cholemia    322 

Cholera  of  fowls 348 


Index 


393 


Page 

Cholera  dissemination  by  meat 333 

Chopped   meat 71 

bacterial  contents  of 71 

examination    of 337 

poisonings    364 

Circulatory   apparatus 215 

disturbances    190 

Clams,   poisonous 356 

Classification    of    food    anima's    for 

market    quotations 6 

Cloudy  swelling 194 

Coccidiae  of  the  skin 225 

intestinal  mucosa 232,  233 

Coccidium    fuscum 232 

oviforme     ...» 231 

perforans 232 

Coenurus   cerebralis 233,  234 

Cold,   preserving   of    meat    by 83 

slaughtering    29 

storage  geese 350 

Coli  bacteria  as  producers  of  sepsis.   294 

in    P3remia 299 

Collecting  box  for  condemned  meat.    171 

Garth 's     177 

Color  changes  of  the  udder  in  boiling  213 

Coloring  of  meat 73,  338 

Coloring  substances,  test  for 338 

Colpitis    follicularis    infectiosa 212 

Comb  scab  in  fowl 348 

Comparative  anatomy  of  the  viscera      5 
Composition     of    meats     and    meat- 
food    products .jo 

Compression    machine 85 

Compressor  for  trichina  inspection.    150 
Compulsory  slaughter  in  public   ab- 
attoirs      377 

Concrement  198 

lime   203 

Condemnations     162 

Condemned    meat,    disposition   of...    170 
Condemned     meats,     collecting    box 

for    171 

utilizing  plants  for 384 

room    138 

Conditionally   passed    meat 162 

confiscates  utilizing  plants  for.  .  384 

collecting   box    for 171 

Connective    tissue 39 

diseases  of 203 

Connective  tissue  mite 348 

Conserves,  preparation   of 79 

examination  of 344 

Conserving    of   meat 71, 78 

Conserving  by  closing   out  of  air.  .     79 
Contagious  pleuro-pneumonia  of  cat- 
tle        309 

Cooking  of  meat.  . ." 76,  79,  162 

Cooling    rooms 85,  384 

Corned  beef    80 

brown    80 

mutton    80 

pork 80 


Past- 
Cottonseed    oil,    adulteration    of    fat 

with   03 

test  for 346 

Cow,  age  of 20 

definition    of 2 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 58 

pox    290 

Cow's  udder,  blue  coloration  of.  ...  335 

Crabs,    examination   of 356 

diseases  of 356 

fraudulent   substitution   for 356 

Culinary  preparation  of  meat 75 

Cracklings    92 

Crustaceans,  peculiarities  of  meat  of  61 

examination  of 356 

Crvptorchid  boars,  sexual  odor  of . .  185 

Cutting  the  throat  for  bleeding. ...  24 
Cvsticerci  as  cause   of  lime  concre- 

ments    203 

cellulosae   240 

inermis,  s.  bovis 243 

pisiformis 233 

tenuicollis    232, 241 

cause   of  peritonitis 210 

Cystic  formation  of  the  heart  valves  216 

Cystic  kidney 212 

Cystodites    nodus 348 


Davainea  mutabilis 

Dead  animals 

Dead  born  animals 

Decomposition  of  meat 

Deer,  age  of 

distinguishing     the    meat     from 
beef   

from  sheep  and  goat 

measles  of  239, 

sex  of  

Degenerations    

of  muscles 

Demodex    scabies 223, 

Dermatocoptes  mites 

Dermatoryctes    mutans 

Diamond  skin  disease 

Diary  inspection  book 

Differentiating  signs  of  the  various 

meats 

Diffused  lymphadenia  of  the  mucous 

membrane   of  the  abomas'im 

Digestability  of  meat 

Digestive  apparatus,  diseases  of.  ... 

lymph  glands  of  the 

weight  of 

Diphtheria   of  calve> 

of  fowls 

of  the  abomasum 

Dipylidium  caninum 

Diseased  meat,  influence  of  cooking. 

of  pickling 

of   smoking 

Diseases,  constitutional 

Diseases  of  the  blood 

Disinfection  plant  for  railroad  cars. 


182 
328 
351 

70 
63 
353 
352 
195 
202 
224 
224 
348 
303 


63 

207 

75 
20 

43 


350 

207 

225 

76 

89 

Qi 

217 

217 

388 


394 


Index 


Page 

Disposition  of  condemned  meat....  170 

Distemper  of  horses 319 

Distillation,   dry   for    destruction   of 

meat 178 

Distomatosis   229 

Distomum   felineum 355 

Dog    abattoir 383 

Dog,  as  food  animal 2 

distinguishing     of     meat     from 

pork 64 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 60 

Dourine    257 

Draw-back  harness  for  transporting 

animals  8 

Dressed  weight . : 4 

Dressing  of  carcasses 26 

Dry     distillation     for     disposing    of 

meat    178 

Drying  of  meat 79 

Duck,    age    of 348 

Dues  for  inspection 152 

dysentery,  hemorrhagic  of  cattle...  231 

Ear    tags 13 

Eber's  test  for  putrefaction 330 

Echinococci  235 

Echinorhyncus   gigas 228 

Eel  blood,  poisonous  qualities  of...  354 

Edema,   malignant 291,  312 

Egg  concrements 350 

Elastic    tissues 39 

Emaciated  animals 183 

Emaciation    183 

Embolism 192 

Emergency    slaughter 27 

inspection  in 141 

meat  poisoning  from 359 

Emmerich 's  slaughtering  method ...  78 
Emphysema       of      the       connective 

tissue     204 

mesentery 209 

Empyema  198 

Endocarditis    216 

valvularis  verrucosa 302 

Engine  houses 385 

Enteritidis    bacilli    as    producers    of 

sepsis 294 

in  pyemia 299 

Enteritis  hemorrhagica 296 

mycotica  of  cattle 314 

septica 296 

Enzootic   heriioglobiuuria 256 

Enzymes  of  muscles 38 

Epithelioma  contagiosum 348 

Eruptions  of  teeth 18 

Erysipelas  (wound) 302 

Erythema 302 

Examination  of  inspectors 131 

Exhausted  animals 188 

Extractive  bodies  in  the  muscles.  ...  38 

Extraordinary   meat   inspection 156 

Fallow   deer,   sexual   differences  of.  353 


I'age 

Farcy    283 

Fasciola    229 

Fasting    calf 183 

Fat  33, 39 

abnormal  coloration  of 187 

chemical  constituents  of 41 

prepared 92 

test  for 344,  345 

Fat  stones 205 

Fattened  calves 58 

steers    58 

Fat    tissue 39 

diseases    of 205 

structure  and  consistence  of...     39 

Fatty   acids 335 

Fatty    degeneration 195 

Fatty  infiltration 195 

Fatty   necrosis   of   the   pancreas....  209 

multiple    205 

Fauna,   bromotologic I 

Fermentation  in  meat 327 

Ferments  of  the  musculature 38 

Fetal  meat 182 

Filaria  equina 233 

piscium  355 

Fish,  diseases  of 355 

examination    of 353,  354 

measles  355 

poisoning    from 353 

Fish  meat,  characteristics  of 61 

deceptions  with 355 

poisonous 353 

ripening  process   in 75 

Fish  poisonings 356,  364 

Fish    pox 355 

Fish  roe,  poisonous 353 

Flat  worms 229 

Flaying  disinfector 172 

Flour,  addition  to  sausage 72 

Flour    mite 334 

Flukes 229 

Food  animals I 

abnormal     conditions     and    dis- 
eases  of 182 

age 16 

anatomy   of  viscera 54 

boat    transportation 10 

classification    for  market  quota- 
tions         6 

dressing   of 26 

guarantee .     15 

importation   of 10 

insurance  of 12 

slaughtering    20 

traffic    with 3 

transportation  / 

utilization     30 

Food  aspiration 214 

Food  preparations  derived  from  ani- 
mals       9i 

Foot  and  mouth  disease 285 

Foot  rot  in  sheep 288 

Forest    disease 256 


Index 


395 


Page 

Formaldehyde,    test    for 342 

Fowl    arthritis 350 

tuberculosis  350 

Fraudulent  substitutions  of  meat...  62 

Freezing,  conserving  meat  by 87 

Freibank    ". .  .    153,  385 

Frog 357 

Frontal    blow 21 

Frozen  meat,  inspection  of 340 

Gad  boils 223 

Gad  fly 222,  225 

of  sheep   225 

Gallics,  meat  food  of  the 368 

Gall    sick 256 

Game,  age  of 351 

diseases    of 353 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 60 

post-mortem  changes  of 353 

Game  and  cattle  plague 316 

Gangrene   196 

Gastro-intestinal   canal,   weight  of . .    ;- 5 

Gastrophilus    227 

Gastrus    larvae 227 

Genito-urinary  apparatus,  diseases  of  210 

Germanians,  meat  food  of  the 368 

Gid  of   sheep 233 

Glassy  degeneration 196 

Glanders    282 

nodules  in  the  lungs 214,  283 

Glycerides    41 

Glycogen  in  muscles 38 

demonstration  of 67 

Gnathostoma  hispidum 228 

Goat  as  food  animal 2 

distinguishing     the     meat     from 

mutton    63 

from    deer 63 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 59 

Goldbeater  skins 34 

Goose,  age  of 348 

meat  from  cold  storage 350 

Granular  atrophy  of  the  liver 208 

eruptions  of  hogs 216,  225 

Granulomata   200 

Grape   fungus  disease 278 

Grape  sugar  in  horse  meat 67 

Grass-fed  cattle 187 

Green  discoloration  of  fat 205 

Ground    meat 71 

bacterial  contents  of 71 

examination    of 337 

poisonings  by 364 

Gruel  kitchens 388 

Guarantee,  in  trading  with  food  ani- 
mals       15 

Gut    room 384 

Gutting 26 

Haddock,  conserving  of 79 

Halisteresis    assium 221 

Hanging  arrangement  in  abattoirs..   383 


Page 

Hare,   age  of 351 

distinguishing     the     meat     from 

cat  meat 64 

Hartmann  's  carcass-destroying  appa- 
ratus        175 

Haut-gout    327 

Heart    56 

of  cattle 57 

Heat,  conduction  of  meat 77 

Heathcock,   determining  age    of. ...  352 

Heat  stroke 302 

Hemangioma  of  the  liver 208 

Hematoidin   191 

Hematopines 225 

Hemoglobin,    in    hemorrhages 191 

Hemoglobinemia  of  cattle 254 

of  horses 324 

Hemoglobinuria    of   cattle 254,314 

of  horses 324 

Hemorrhages,  time  of  occurrence. .  .   191 

multiple  of  the  muscles 201 

of  lungs 213 

Hemorrhodin    88 

Hemosiderin   191 

Hemosporidiosis    254 

Henneguya  Zschokkei 355 

Hepatitis,  chronic  intersitial 208 

Hermit  tapeworm 240 

Hide  houses 384 

Hide  salting  establishment 384 

History  of  meat  hygiene 367 

in    Canada 376 

in  the  United  States 370 

Hochmuth's  destruction  apparatus..   177 

Hodgkins   disease 220 

Hog   as    food    animal I 

distinguishing    meat    from    dog 

meat    64 

emergency  slaughter  of 27 

influence  of  feeding  on  meat  of.     59 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 59 

Hog  bristles,  utilization  of 35 

Hog  cholera 306 

Hoofs  and  claws  as  offal 35 

Hook-frames   in  abattoirs  for  small 

stock    383 

Horn  rings  of  cows 20 

Horns,  development  for  determining 

age 17 

Horse,  as  food  animal I 

distinguishing  from  beef 66 

distinguishing    salted    horse    in- 
testines from  cattle  intestines.   146 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 59 

Horse  abattoir 383 

Horse  mange 223 

Horse  malaria 256 

Horse  meat,  test  for 67 

House    fly 333 

Hyaline    degeneration 196 

Hydremia     218 

Hydronephrosis    212 

Hydrometra    212 


396 


Index 


Page 

Hygrometer    87 

Hyperemia     190 

Hyperplasia 200 

Hypertrophy   200 

Hypoderma  larvae 222 

Hypophrenic    abscesses 210 

Ice  boxes 83 

Ice  houses 83 

Ice  production,  artificial 86 

Ichthyosismus     364 

Ichthyotoxicon   354 

Icterus    322 

Imbibition,  hemorrhagic 190 

Immature    animals 182 

Importation    of    food     animals     and 

meat    10 

Incising  of  lymph   glands 135 

Incompletely  bled  animals 188 

Indigestions  of   food  animals,  influ- 
ence on  weight 6 

Induration   194 

Infarct,    hemorrhages 192 

in  the  spleen 216 

Infectious  growths 200 

Infectious  diseases 257 

Inferior   quality   meat 170 

Infectious  vaginal  catarrh  of  cattle. .  212 

Infiltrations  of  tissues 194 

Inflammations    193 

Inflammatory  disease  of  the  head  in 

cattle   317 

Inflammatory  processes  of  muscles. .  202 

of  connective  tissue 204 

Inflation   of  carcasses 27, 204 

Influences   of   feeding  on    food   ani- 
mals    185 

Influenza   of  horses 319 

Injection   pickling 88 

Ink  stamps 159 

Insect  larvae  on  meat 333 

Inspection  of  imported  meat...    145,180 

Inspection  office 385 

reports    151 

Inspection  of  slaughtered  animals..  134 

dispositions  as   the   result  of . . .  158 

Inspector's    assistant 132 

Intestines   54 

multiple  hemorrhages  of 208 

Intestinal    emphysema 209 

Intestinal     parasites,     influence     on 

odor  of  meat 186,  228 

Intoxication,    putrid 300 

Intoxications  in  food  animals 320 

Invasion,    diseases    of 222 

Iridescence  of  muscles 202 

Iridescence  of  pickled  meat 341 

Ischemia 190 

Israelitish    meat   laws 367 

Ixidioplasma    bigeminum 254 

Ixotles    reduvius 254 


Page 

Jaundice  322 

malignant  of  dogs 256 

Jelly  sausage 74 

Jerked  beef 79 

Johne  's  disease 263 

Ketone  in  fat 335 

Kidneys    56 

weight   of  in   cattle 57 

Kori  's   burning   stove 178 


Laboratory  inspectors 

Laminosioptes  cysticola 

Land  flavor 

Lard  

artificial    

examination   of    

test  of  

Large  stock,  as  food  animals 

dressing  of  

Leaker  (defective  can) 

Legal  means  of  redress  in  meat 

inspection 

Leg-scab  of  fowl 

Leucorrhea  

Leukemia 

Lice  •. 

Lime  concrements  from  cysticerci 

tenuicollis 

Lime  concrements  in  muscles 

Live  weight  of  food  animals 

Liver  

telangiectasis  of 

weight  in  cattle 

Liver  fluke 

migrated 

Liver  necrosis,  multiple 

Livid  areas 

Lobster,  examination  of 


132 

348 

353 

93 

93 

344 

344 

i 

26 


1=0 

348 

212 

219 

225 

232 
203 

4 

55 
208 

57 
229 

233 
208 
190 
356 
356 
33 
33 


conserves   

Long  clear 

Long  fat  backs 

Losses  in  meat  in  its  preparation  for 

food  77 

Lumbago  of  horses . . 324 

Lung   nodules,   calcareo-fibrous.   214,285 
Lungs    55 

diseases    of 213 

weight  in  cattle 57 

Lung    parasites -  -  226 

Lymphadenia  of  the  abomasum,  dif- 

"fused   207 

Lymph  glands 43 

incising  of 1^5 

Lymph  nodes,  size,  numbers  and  lo- 
cation         43 

incising  of 135 

Lymph  vessels 43 

Lyssa 281 

Macular  hemorrhagic   dermatitis    in 

hogs 303 

Machines,  refrigeration 85 


Index 


397 


Pago 

Maggots  on  meat 333 

Malaria  of  cattle 256 

of  horses 256 

Mai  de  caderas 256 

Malformations    201 

Malignant  catarrhal  fever  of  cattle.  317 

Malignant    edema 291,  312 

Malleus    282 

Management  of  abattoirs 385 

of  stockyards 389 

Manure  houses   (dung  yards)  . .  384,  388 

Margarin  law 94 

Market  halls  in  stock  yards 387 

Market  quotations  for  food  animals.  6 

Marking  of  inspected  meat 159 

foreign 181 

of  injured  animals 13 

Mastitis    213 

septic 213 

Maturity  of  calves  for  slaughter...  16 

Measles -. . . .  239 

autoinf ection    with 242 

in  fish 355 

in  game 239,  240,  353 

regulations  for  judgment. . .  245,  246 

Meat  changes,  post-mortem 327 

Meat,  conserving  of 18 

constituents  of 36 

.     decomposition 327 

disposition  of  condemned 162 

distinguishing  various  kinds  of.  62 

fetal  182 

flies    333 

Meat    extract 41,  91 

examination  of 344 

Meat  flour,  preparation  of 79 

American 92 

Meat  foods,   obtaining  of I 

composition  , 40, 41 

Meat-food  poisoning 364,  365 

Meat,    fraudulent   substitutions   of .  .  62 

Kosher   27 

Meat    inspection,    ambulatory 156 

designation  of  animals  in 2 

extraordinary   156 

history    of 367 

law 127 

performance  of 133,  155 

regulations     96 

statistics  iqi 

Meat  inspectors  (practical) 132 

Meat,  marking  of 159 

of  crustaceans  and  mollusks 61 

of  fish 61 

of  food  animals I,  30,  57 

of  game 60 

of  poultry 60 

of  reptiles,  etc 61 

peculiarities  of. 57 

Meat   paste 74 

Meat   poisonings 358 

as  a  result  of  bac.  enteritidis. .  358 

from  bac.  coli 362 

from  bac.   botnlinus 364 


Page 

Meat,  post-mortem  changes  in  .....  327 

preparation   of  .................     71 

prohibition  from  importing  .....      10 

qualities   of  ....................     31 

ripening   of  ....................     38 

Meat  sausage  ......................     72 

Meat  sterilizers  ....................    162 

technique  of  inspection  of  ......   134 

turning  gray  in  cooking  .......     73 

Melano-sarcomatosis    ..............    199 

Melanosis  .................  .......    198 

Melting  out  of  fat  ..................   169 

Meningitis,  cerebro-spinalis  .........  217 

Mesenteric  emphysema  .............   209 

Metallic  poisons  in  meat  ...........  335 

Metaplasia   ........................   200 

Method  of  procedure  in  meat  inspec- 
tion   ..............  .-  .............   138 

Metritis,  septic  .....................   296 

Microorganisms,    action    of   pickling 
on  ..............................     89 

smoking  on  ....................     91 

Miescher  's  sacs  ....................   252 

Milk  fever  .........................  324 

Milk  nodes  ........................  213 

Mohammedan  food  laws  ...........  368 

Mollusks    .........................     61 

Moniezia    .........................  229 

Morbus  maculosus  .....  ..  ...........   297 

Morbus  nodulosus  of  fish  ...........  355 

Morphology"  of  tissues  and  organs..     36 
Mould  formation  on  meat  ..........   331 

Mucin-metamorphosis    .............   196 

Mucoid  degeneration  ...............    196 

Mucor  ............................  331 

Multiple  fat  necrosis  ...............  205 

Multiple  hemorrhages  of  muscles...  201 
Murexid    reaction  ..................  350 

Musca    vomitoria  ..................  333 

domestica  .....................  33  •* 

Muscle    actinomycosis  ..............   203 

Muscle   degeneration  ...............   202 

Muscle  distomes  in  fish  ............  355 

Muscle  coloring  matter,  retaining  of    71 
Muscle   lymph  glands  ............  43,  5  1 

Muscle  samples  for  trichina  exami- 
nation   ..........................   150 

Muscles,  turning  gray  in  cooking.  .  .     73 
in  pickling  .....................     88 

Muscular  hemorrhages  .............   201 

Musculatur    .......................     36 

Mussel    poisoning  ..................  356 

Mutton,   peculiarities   of  meat  ......     59 

Mycosis  astacina  ...................  356 

Mytilismus     ...................  356.  364 

Myxobolus     .......................   355 

Myxosporidia   .....................  355 

,  prepared  as  food  ...........     35 


Xagana  of  cattle  ...................  256 

Navel   infection,    septic  .............  296 

pyemic    .......................  299 

Neat  's   foot  oil  ....................  35 

Neck  stretcher   for   schachten  ......  24 


398 


Index 


Page 

Necrosis 196 

of    fat 209 

Necrophorus  bacilli,  in  the  liver...  209 

cause  of  calf  diphtheria 318 

Negri    bodies 282 

Nephritis    210,  21 1 

Neuroma  of  the  intercostal  nerves.  .  215 

Nettle   fever 303 

Nitric  oxyhemo-chromogen 76 

Nitrate  of  potassium,  test  for 341 

Nodular  disease  of  fish 355 

Nutritive  value  of  meat 75 

Obligations,  conditions  of 15 

Ochronosis    199 

Odor  of  meat 57 

abnormal    184, 335 

absorption    186 

examination    of 137 

Oestrus    larvae 222,  225 

ovis    225 

Offal    30,  34 

Oidium  astaci 356 

Oil,  conserving  with 82 

Oil   sardines 83 

Olein  92 

Oleomargarin   92,  94 

Oleo  oil,  preparation  of 94 

Oligemia    217 

Omphalo-phlebitis,  septic 296 

pyemic    299 

Organs,  lymph  glands  of 43 

diseases    of 201 

parasites  of 222 

used     for     the     preparation     of 

therapeutical  remedies 34 

Osteomalacia    221 

Osteomyelitis,  suppurative 297 

Osteopsathyrosis    221 

Ovaries,  comparative  anatomy 57 

poisonous  from  fish 353 

utilization    of 34 

Over  sticking 25 

Overheated  meat 327 

Oxyuris    228 

Oysters,    diseases    of 356 

Palisade  worms 226 

Palpating  animals  in  trading .3 

Pancreas  55 

necrosis  of 209 

Pancreatic  peptone 92 

Paparika  bacon 79 

Paramphistomum  conicum 231 

Parasites,  of  brain 233 

of  digestive  apparatus 227 

of  lungs 226 

Pleura  and  peritoneum 232 

of  skin 222 

Parasitic  infestations,  toxins  of....  229 

Parasitic  diseases  of  organs 222 

Paratyphoid  meat  poisonings 358, 

360,  361,  364 


Page 

Parenchymatous    degeneration 194 

Parturient  symptomatic  anthrax  292,  312 
rarturition    fever 324 

paresis    324 

Pasture  stock i 

Pelvic  cavity,  lymph  glands  of 43 

Penetration    of   meat   by   high   tem- 
perature         77 

Penicillium    331 

Pentastomes    226 

Pentastomum  denticulatum 234 

Pentastomum    taenioides 226 

Pearly   disease 257 

virulence  of  meat  of 266 

Pepsin    pepton 92 

Peptic    ulcers 207 

Pepton    92 

Pericarditis    215,  296,  300 

traumatic 300 

Peritoneum,    diseases    of 209 

Peritonitis 210,  232,  296 

Pernicious    anemia 217 

Petechiae  of  the  pleura 215 

Petechial  fever 297 

Pheasant,  age  of 352 

Plebectasis 216 

Phosphorescence  of  meat 332 

Pickled  meat,  examination  of 341 

Pickling  fluid,  concentration.  87,169,366 

Pickling  of  meat 87,  169 

Pickling,   test  for  thorough 341 

Pigeon,  age  of 347 

Pigment  formation 198 

Pigmentation  of  fat,  black 205 

of  pleura 215 

Piroplasmosis  254 

Pitch  mange 216 

Pithing   24 

Placenta,  retained 300 

Pleuritis   215 

septic 296 

Pleuro-pneumonia,    contagious 309 

Pneumatosis  of  the  mesentery 209 

Pneumonia,    caseous 299 

Podewil  's    carcass-destroying    appa- 
ratus       173 

Poisoning 320 

Poisonous  fish 353 

Police  abattoir 385 

Pollution  of  the  lungs 214 

Polyarthritis   septica 296 

pyemic    299 

Polymyositis 202 

Pork  measles 240 

Porschen  of  kosher  meat 27 

Post-mortem  changes  of  meat 327 

Post-mortem   hypostasis 190 

Post-mortem  spots 190 

Poultry,  age  of 347 

diseases    of 348 

post-mortem  changes  of  meat . . .   350 
Poultry  meat,  characteristics   of.  ...     60 

influences  of  feeding  on 186 


Index 


399 


Page 

Pox 288 

of  chicken 348 

of  fish 355 

Precipitation  method  for  distinguish- 
ing meat 62 

Pregnanacv    in    animals,   claims   on 

seller 187 

Premier  jus 94 

Preparation   of  meats 71 

Prepared  meat,  examination  of 337 

Preservative  salts 8p 

Pressure    steam    apparatus    for    dis- 
posing of  meat 172 

Pricking   stamp 13 

Private  slaughter  houses 377 

Procedure  of  inspection 137 

Production  of  meat 71 

Projection   trichina  microscopes....  150 

Proteus   bacteria 328 

in  meat  poisoning 362 

Protozoa  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  231 

general  affections  due  to 252 

Pseudo-aphtha   287 

Pseudo-anthrax   bacilli 280 

Pseudo-leukemia   220 

Pseudo-trichinae  250 

Pseudo-tuberculosis    272 

Psorospermial  bodies 253 

Pulley  harness  for  transportation  of 

animals  8 

Purpura   hemorrhagica 297 

Pus,  contamination  of  meat  with . . .  299 

Pus  forming  organisms. 197 

Putrefaction  of  meat 328 

Putrefaction,  test  for 330 

Putrefaction  bacteria  in  sapremia . .  300 

Putrid  intoxication 3°° 

Pyelonephritis 211 

Pyemia   29? 

cause  of  meat  poisoning 350 

Pyobacillosis 299,  306 

Pyonephrosis    1 1 

Pyometra  212 

Pyorrhea    198 

Quality  classes  of  food  animals 3,6 

of  meat 3o 

Quarantine   abattoirs 3&5 

Quarantine   yards 388 

Rabies 281 

Rabbit,  age  of 351 

as  food  animal 2 

distinguishing  the  meat  from  cat 

meat    64 

Rabbit  meat  peculiarities 60 

production  of . ._. 3 

Rabbit  measles '. 353 

Railroad    platforms 3§8 

Railroad  sickness 10 

transportation  of  food  animals.  .  9 

Rainey  's  bodies 252 

Ram,  odor  of  meat  of 185 


Page 

Rancidity   of  fats 335 

Ray  fungus  disease 273 

Reaction  of  the  musculatur 38 

test  for 135 

Reddening  of  meat 76,  90,  332,  338 

Red  diarrhea  of  cattle 231 

of   calves 319 

Reductive  properties  of  musculature     39 
Refractometer  after  Zeiss-Wollny. .  344 

Refrigerating  railroad  car 83 

Refrigeration  plant  machine 85 

Regulations  for  meat  inspection ....     96 

Reindeer  pest 312 

Reinspection  of  meat 146 

Rennet  ferment 34 

Replacement  of  teeth 18 

Reptiles,  peculiarities   of  meat  of..     61 
Respiratory  apparatus,  lymph  glands 
of   48 

diseases    of 213 

Rest  for  transported  animals 8 

Retained  placenta 300 

Retaining  room 137 

Rhachitis    220 

Rhipicephalus   254 

Rib  bellies " 33 

Rigor    mortis 37 

ferment 37 

Rinderpest 314 

Ripening  of  meat 38,  75,  327 

Roasting  of  meat 76 

Roe,   poisonous  qualities  of 353 

Romans,  meat  foods  of  the 368 

Rotation  of  spleen 216 

Rotting  of  meat 328 

Round  worms  of  the  digestive  appa- 
ratus       227 

Rumen,  traumatic  inflammation  of.  .  206 

Salicylic  acid,  test  for 342 

Sanitary   establishment 385 

Sanitary  slaughter  house 385 

Sausage    71 

casings,  coloring  of 73 

casings,  dirt  in 339 

examination    of 337 

fat    93 

filling 73 

poisonings  from 364 

Sausage,  turning  gray  of 73,  339 

Salt,  conserving  of  meat  with 87 

test  for 341 

Salting  of  meat  for  conserving 87 

Saltpeter,  test  for 341 

Sample  taking  for  trichina  inspection  150 

Sapremia    300 

Saprophites   300 

toxigenic 366 

Sarcocystis   miesheriana 252 

Sarcomatosis 200 

Sarcoptic  mange 223,  224 

Sarcosporidiosis 252 

Sarkophaga  carnavia 333 

Scabies  mites 223 


400 


Index 


Page 

Schachten  of  food  animals 24 

regulations   on 29 

Sea  eel 355 

salmon    355 

Semitic  food  laws 25,  27,  367 

Sex,    determination    of 142 

Sexual  organs  as  offal 35 

Scalding  of  slaughtered  hogs 26 

Scaly  feet  of  fowl 34$ 

Scarlet  fever,  dissemination  by  meat  333 

Schweinsberger  disease 208 

Sclerotic  condition  of  fat  tissue 205 

Sclerostomae    228 

Securing  harness  for  food  animals. .  .    ,8 

Sepsis 293 

cause  of  meat  poisonings 359 

Septicemia  hemorrhagica 316 

Septicopyemia    294 

Serum   diagnosis   for   distinguishing 

meat    62 

in  meat  poisonings 361 

Sexual   peculiarities   of  meat 184 

Shaking  disease  of  sheep 225 

Sheep  as  food  animals 2 

distinguishing  of  meat  from  goat    63 

from   deer : 63 

Sheep  pox 289 

scabies    223 

Shooting  of  food  animals 22 

bolt    apparatus 22 

Short  clear 33 

Short  fat  back 33 

Signatera  354 

Simulia  ornata 316 

Singeing  of  hogs 26 

Skeleton  muscles,  diseases  of 201 

Skin,  of  food  animals 34 

diseases    of 216 

parasites  222 

Slaughter  axe 21 

Slaughter  houses  in  Rome 368 

public 377 

Slaughter  mask 21 

Slaughtering  machine  for  hogs 24 

methods'  with    stunning 21 

without    stunning 24 

regulation    for 29 

Slaughtering  of  animals  for  Jews. .     27 

Small  stock  as  food  animals I 

Smoked  products,  examination  of. .   343 

Smoked  salmon 94 

Smoking,  conserving  by 90 

Snuffle  disease   of  hogs 200 

Soiled   meat,  with  anthrax  bacilli..   280 

with  pus 299 

Soiling   of   meat 324 

Sooty   mange 216 

Sour  side 327 

Souring  of  meat 327 

of    fats ' 335 

Spinal      meningitis,      infections      of 

horses 324 

Spiradenitis    coccidiosa 225 


Page 

Spleen 55 

rotation  of  the 216 

weight  in  cattle 57 

Spotted  disease  of  lobsters  and  crabs  356 
Spotted  kidney  of  calves,  white....  210 

Spring-bolt  apparatus 22 

Squeezing  out  passages  or  cavities  of 

slaughtered  animals 135 

Stables  in  stock  yards 387 

Stock    yards 386 

Stamps  for  meat 159 

Stamping  ink 161 

Staphylococci,  as  producers  of  sepsis  294 

suppuration   297 

Starch     flour    addition     to     sausage 

fillings 337,  339 

Starch  from  spices  in  sausage 337 

Steam    digester 172 

Steaming  of  meat 76 

of  meat  passed  conditionally...    162 

Steer,  definition  for 2 

Sterilizers    for   meat 162 

Sterilizing  of  meat  by  boiling 79 

Stinging    fly 333 

Stomach  54 

contents,  utilization  of 35 

worm  epizootic  of  sheep 227 

Stomatitis  bovis 287 

Stomoxys  calcitrans 333 

Streptococcus  melanogenes 324 

vaginitis   bovis 213 

Streptococci,  as  producers  of  sepsis.  294 

suppuration   297 

Strongylides  of  the  lungs 226,  305 

of  the  intestines 227 

Stunning  of  food  animals 21 

by  blow  on  the  base  of  the  head.     23 

Sturgeon  calves 58 

Sucking   mite 224 

Suffocated    meat 327 

Sulphites,  test  for 342 

Sulphurous  acid,  conserving  by 89 

test  for 342 

Sulphate  of  hydrogen,  test  for 330 

Supervision     of     ante-mortem     and 

post-mortem  inspection 152 

Suppuration 197 

Suppurative    osteomyelitis 2Q~ 

Surra  of  cattle 256 

Sweller  (defective  can) 82 

Swelling,   cloudy 194 

Sweetbread    34,  56 

Swine  erysipelas 301 

Swine    fever 306 

Swine  plague 3°4 

pyemia    290 

Symplectaptes    cysticola 348 

Symptomatic    anthrax 311 

parturient    292, 312 

Taenia    solium 240 

toxins   of 229 

saginata    243 


Index 


401 


Pago 

Tallow    92 

examination    of 345 

Tallow    factories 384 

Tapeworm  disease  of  sheep 229 

Tasajo    79 

Taste  abnormalities  of  meat 184 

Technique  of  meat  inspection 134 

Teeth,    determining    age   by 18,  19 

Teleangiectasis  of  the  liver 208 

Temperature,  penetration  into  meat.     77 

Tetanolysin   290 

Tetanotoxin    290 

Tetanus    290 

Tetrarhyncus   larvae 355 

Texas    fever 256 

Therapeutical      remedies      prepared 

from  organs 34 

Thorough  chilling  of  measled  beef.    170 

Thorough  pickling,  test  for 341 

Thrombosis  192 

Thymus  gland 56 

Thyroid  glands,  utilization  of 34 

comparative    anatomy   of 56 

Ticks  254 

Tick  fever  of  cattle 256 

Tinea    galli 348 

Tissues,    diseases    of 201 

Tobacco  odor  of  meat 335 

Tongue 54 

Toxinemia   293 

Toxins   of  parasitic  infestations....  229 

Toxins  of  putrefaction 331 

Traffic  in  food  animals 3 

Tragacanth  in  sausage 337 

Transportation,   losses   in   food   ani- 
mals from 4 

of  food  animals 7 

regulations   on 10 

Transportation   by   boat 10 

by  driving 7 

by   railroad 9 

wagon  for  cattle 9 

Transudation    192 

Traumatic  inflammation  of  rumen..   206 

pericarditis    215 

Traumatic  pneumonia 305 

Trepha    27 

Trichina   245 

Trichina    inspection 147,  250 

Trichina   inspection  association 149 

Trichina  microscopes 150 

Trichinosis    246 

Trichocephalus    affinis 228 

Triebern   of  kosher  meat 27 

Tripe 34 

room    384 

Tristeza  of  cattle., 256 

Trypanosomes    256 

Tsetse-fly   disease 256 

Tuberculosis   257 

dissemination    of 259 

examination    for 264 

27 


Tuberculosis,     forms    of 

outline    showing    the    forms    of 
tuberculosis,    and    disposal    of 

meat    

prevalence  of ' 

virulence  of  meat  in 

Tuberculosis  of  fowls 

Tuberculosis    vaccination,    influence 

on  meat 

Tumors 

Turpentine  odor  of  meat 

Typhoid,  dissemination  by  meat  333, 

Tyroglyphus   farinae ' 

Tyrosin  deposits  in  barreled  livers.. 

Udder  

diseases   of    

United    States    inspected    and    con- 
demned   

and  passed , . . . . 

United  States  retained ]   137, 

United  States  suspect 

Uremia 

Uric  acid  deposits  in  poultry 

Urinary  apparatus,  diseases  of. .  210, 

lymph  glands  of  the 

Urinary  bladder 

Urticaria 

Uterus,  comparative  anatomy  of 

diseases    of 

Utilization  of  food  animals . . 


Page 
200 


268 
261 
266 
250 

270 

200 

335 
356 
334 
343 

57 
213 

138 

138 

138 

133 

323 

350 

323 

50 

56 

303 

56 

212 
30 


Vaccination  pox  of  calves 290 

Vacuoles  in  meat 344 

Vaginial  catarrh  of  cattle,  infectious  212 

Vaginitis    213 

V  ariola   288 

Venuleth  and  Ellenberger  meat  de- 
struction apparatus 177 

Verminous    pneumonia 305 

Vesicular  exanthema  of  horses  and 

cattle  315 

Veterinary  inspectors,   responsibility 

of   131 

Veterinary  police  in  abattoirs 386 

Veterinary      supervision      of     abat- 
toirs  385,  389 

Veterinary   supervision   of  meat    in- 
spection        152,158 

Villous    heart 216 

Viscera  34 

comparative  anatomy  of 54 

lymph  glands  of 43 

of   cattle,   absolute   and    relative 
weight  of 6 

Waste  water  clearing  plants 385 

Water,  absorbtion  of  sausage  filling    37 

addition  to  sausage  filling 72 

supply  of  abattoirs 384 

of  stock  yards 388 


4O2 


Index 


Page 

Weight  of  viscera,  absolute  and  rel- 
ative      6,  57 

losses    in    culinary    preparation 

of    meat 75 

White  sausage 74 

White  scours  of  calves 313 

Wild    duck 352 

goose 352 

Woodcock,   age  of 352 

Wooden    tongue 275 


Page 

Wound  erysipelas 302 

Wound,    septic 297 

Xanthosis    199 

Yellow  discoloration   of  fat 187 

as  result  of  feeding 189 

Yellow  gait 213 

Young  cattle,  definition  for 2 

peculiarities  of  meat  of 58 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Plat 


f 


Section  of  a  tuberculous  udder  of  a  cow  with  corresponding  lymph  glands 


Fig.  3.  Secti< 
tuberculous  b  r  o 
lymph  gland  froi 


i.     Section  of  a  beef  lung  showing  contagious  pleuro-pneumonia 


Fig.  2.     Angiomata  in  a  beef  liver 


Fig.    4.  Secti 

mesenteric  lymp 

of    a    cow  with 
tome  foci. 


Bulletin  No.  38,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  III 


Tuberculous  Liver  of  Cow 


Bulletin  No.  38,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  IV 


Tuberculous  Lungs  of  Hog 


Bulletin  No.  38,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate   V 


Tuberculous  Spleen  of  Hog  Spleen  of  Healthy  Hog 


Bulletin  No.  38,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  VI 


Tuberculosis  of  Intestine  of  a  Child,  caused  by  a  bacillus  of  bovine  type 


Tuberculous  Ovary  of  Cow 


Bulletin  No.  52,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  VII 


Bulletin  No.  52,  B.  A.  I. 


Plate  VIII 


Tuberculous  Lung  of   Calf,  caused  by   subcutaneous   inoculation   with  pure  culture 

human  tuberculosis 


tti 


^ro 


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